Pyramid Science

Nuclear Power And Radioactivity

2011-05-31T08:04:00.000-07:00

Chernobyl (Belarus): the reactors were old and unsafe. New designs of reactor may reduce the likelihood of a disaster (‘safer’), but whatever the delusion the energy source remains the same. The beast may be contained within a more secure cell though if the beast escapes... it's the same beast. Water is water or gold is still gold. The Fukushima Daiishi disaster in Japan illustrates the continuing threat with nuclear power.

Is anyone curious or really worried by the fact that cancers have been escalating over recent decades? The acceleration of any natural uncontrolled growth (tumour) has the generic term: ‘cancer’. Could it be that the continual emission of radiation over the last few decades has ultimately become so noticeable it can no longer be hidden?

No nuclear installation is absolutely ‘leak-proof’.

Thorium fuel cycle - an alternative?

Nuclear weapons cannot be made using thorium and that fact alone should explain why thorium will never be used even though it presents a safer energy source.

Any journey must always begin with the first step and that there is a growing disquiet about nuclear power can only be a good thing and the journey appears to be pointing in the right direction. The real problem will be removing mankind’s total reliance on power and energy and as the population size relentlessly increases without much concern the prospect of continued (human) life on Earth seems to be inevitably doomed.

The Fukushima ‘event’ has been upgraded to the maximal Level 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale. The Richter magnitude scale (a measure of earthquake violence) is only a single digit change, but represents a 10 fold (up or down) movement. It’s logarithmic, so from Level 5 to Level 6 defines a x 10 upward change or a Level 5 to Level 7 is a x 100 ( = 10 x 10) increase. This can be used politically to give the impression of a small change, though in fact is very different. Level 5 -> Level 6 or Level 5 -> Level 7 is not so dramatic as the respective 10 or 100-fold increase and the interpretation could be used to downplay the real situation. Chernobyl was a Level 7 event.

One country may have a different attitude to nuclear power, but that can never be enough. A disaster and an unfavorable wind can very quickly contaminate neighbouring areas. Continued air movement then eventually contaminates the entire planet. And very quickly. Dilution of the original source as it spreads simply contaminates everywhere. How much infection is necessary to cause a pandemic (Black Death)? This has the a similar mechanism as the spread of carbon dioxide.

Why is the spread of all cancers ( = Cancer) continuing to increase and only in recent decades? The atmospheric pollution of radioactive material is forever present. The entire global population has been contaminated for at least a generation (or two - DA). And the next generation grows with the biological (DNA) changes caused by radiation

The next generation has corrupted DNA and the hereditary nature of genetics means that the next generation and (probably) several after that are doomed to grow with changed DNA. It's already too late to stop the world-wide spread of damage, but it could (at least in theory - DA) be contained

Radiation sickness is understood to occur after about a 1 sievert = 1000 mSv exposure (dose). Severe radiation sickness is caused after a 2000 mSv exposure and death after 4000 mSv. In Britain background radiation (from rocks, soils, food, the air...) is estimated to be 2.7 mSv per year. Of this, the man-made contribution (medical imaging) amounts to around 20%.

This itself forces an issue: the use of such a radiation source to examine the human biological system could theoretically contaminate where there is no evidence of exposure to radiation. Searching for evidence of exposure actually leaves the previously non-existent evidence.

The radiation levels around the Fukushima plant range between 0.003 mSv and 0.005 mSV per hour. The average (0.004 mSv/hour) then equates to 35000 mSv/year. Placed in relative perspective: 35,000/2.7 = 12963 times the UK-dose. The Fukushima Level 7 represents the UK annual background radiation dose exposure within only a few hours.

Fast Driving And Increased Fuel Cost

2010-10-26T01:10:00.000-07:00

Car Fuel Efficiency
Economical Driving
Economical Driving - The Physics
Fuel Consumption Ratings
Head Injury
Improvement
Internal Combustion Engine

Economical Driving and the differences between 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80mph (v) have considerable consequences with respect to fuel consumption. Assuming the same car, the only real change is the actual speed and the resultant wind resistance (proportional to ½mv²) and since the mass is (relatively) the same, it can be ignored.

Increased speed is matched with increased frictional forces, though probably the effect is minimal compared to the increase in wind resistance created by speed. The inertia to get the vehicle moving will be ignored even though it is technically the resistance to rotation. The horizontal motion and the downward vertical pull by gravity combine to create an overall downward force. This will not disappear as the forces remain in operation This is similar in principle to the forces on an orbiting satellite around a planet: the constant pull towards the planet as it moves away from the planet results in orbit around the planet. Frictional and gravitational forces are a constant. It is the stop/start and slowing/acceleration that causes the massive increase in consumption as the rate of change in the motion of the mass of the vehicle is constantly altering.

Speed/Time Taken (½mv²)

30mph: 100 miles = 200 mins (450)
40mph: 100 miles = 150 mins (800)
50mph: 100 miles = 120 mins (1250)
60mph: 100 miles = 100 mins (1800)
70mph: 100 miles = 85 mins (2450)
80mph: 100 miles = 75 mins (3200)

Time to travel 100 miles at constant speed
Resistance ≡ ½mv² (ignoring the mass and comparing the relative value, this is regarded as dimensionless)

Doubling speed results in a much greater energy requirement. That increase between 30mph and 60mph results in x4. Energy is proportional to v²/2 or (30 x 30)/2 = 450 and (60 x 60)/2 = 1800. The change between 40mph and 80mph also represents a doubling of speed with an increase of x4 resistance (800 and 3200). Both may halve the journey time, 200 mins -> 100 mins and 150 mins -> 75 mins, but to create this time saving for a speed increase x2.67, the fuel consumption difference between 30mph and 80mph is x7.11. In terms of energy (fuel used), even a x2 speed increase will result in consumption x4. Considering the higher speeds (60mph and 80mph), the fuel cost overhead is 7.11/4 = x1.78, an increase of 78% (4 + 3.11) for a speed increase of just 33% (60mph -> 80mph) and the actual journey time for the 100 miles is reduced by just 25 mins (100 mins at 60mph and 75 mins at 80mph = 25%), but the cost is raised considerably (+78%), more than x3 as much. Even the small 10 min time saving on the 100 mile journey (at constant speed) between 70mph and 80mph will have a large jump of 30% in the cost (3200/2450 = 1.3).

If there were to be a 30% hike in train fares to save 10 minutes on a 100 mile journey, there would be many complaints. When it comes to cars, a different mind-set can exist.

Travelling (legally) at 30mph or 70mph may increase speed by x2.33, but fuel consumption (increased wind resistance) jumps by x5.44 (2450/450) and a higher speed always costs more than slower speeds for the same vehicle. The only saving is time and can never be cost. A heavier vehicle costs considerably more at all speeds since a greater weight has to be propelled. The inertia involved with (stop/start) town driving makes the larger vehicle costlier. Large vehicles about town will always be more expensive, especially with heavy acceleration. A benefit of the long distance journey is that the overall inertia (getting the vehicle moving) is less. Another would be that the operating temperature for maximum efficiency is reached and maintained throughout the journey. Short journeys can never reach the optimum operating temperature. Once moving (from standstill), the inertia is effectively zero. But friction (contact of tyres with the road) is constant. Higher speeds result in more friction (tyres get hotter at speed) and without the constant application of power (fuel consumption), drag forces (friction, wind resistance and gravity pulling the mass downwards) would cause the vehicle to come to a standstill.

It is quite illustrative to compare short town driving journeys. Real journeys would involve frequent slow/stop, start/accelerate cycles and the inertia involved at each speed rate change would escalate all the following values significantly:

30mph for 1 mile = 2.0 mins
40mph for 1 mile = 1.5 mins

The time saving is just 30 seconds for the 33% speed increase. The fuel consumption at 30mph = (30 x 30)/2 = 450. The amount at 40mph = (40 x 40)/2 = 800. The difference is 350, so the extra fuel used in the 30 seconds faster driving is (800 - 450)/450 = 78%.

30mph for 1 mile = 2.0 mins
50mph for 1 mile = 1.2 mins

A time saving is increased to 50 seconds, but the fuel cost is much greater. 30mph = (30 x 30)/2 = 450, but at 50mph = (50 x 50)/2 = 1250. The extra fuel is then (1250 - 450)/450 = 178%.

Even a moderate (10mph) speed increase of 40mph to 50mph results in a significant fuel cost:

40mph for 1 mile = 1.5 mins
50mph for 1 mile = 1.2 mins

The time saving is just 30 seconds, but the fuel load increases by (40 x 40)/2 = 800 and (50 x 50)/2 = 1250 and (1250 - 800)/800 = 56%.

The raised stress level of the 'pushy' and confrontational driver is really unnecessary. Rapid approach to a red traffic light and 'tail-gating' when intimidation is the goal: the stupid and ignorant attempt at bullying and such people have a major psychological deficit. Intelligence is patently lacking. It is absurd to reach a stop at a red light by getting to the light quicker than a moderate approach by which time the light is more likely to have turned green. This would not require a stop/start cycle and the associated inertia and the likelihood is that the overall (short) journey time could be much the same. The energy difference between a few 100s metres at 40km/h or the same distance by natural deceleration (drag forces) to (or nearing) 0km/h can be significant. The time saving is an illusion.

Consider the relatively fast approach to a red traffic light over 400m at 40km/h. The duration is 36 seconds [40000m in 3600 seconds or 400m in 36 seconds] and then heavy braking to a standstill (0km/h).

A more moderate approach:

200m at 40km/h (18 seconds), then 100m at 30km/h (12 seconds), 50m at 20km/h (9 seconds) and final 50m at 10km/h (18 seconds). The result is the same: final speed = 0km/h over 400m , but the time difference is then between 36 seconds (fast approach) and (18 + 12 + 9 + 18) = 57 seconds (moderate approach). This may achieve a reduction of 21 seconds for reaching the red light, but it's waiting time at the same red light. The (relative) energy used (≡ ½v²) is much more significant: 800 for 36 seconds = 28800 vs (800 x 18 = 14400) + (450 x 12 = 5400) + (200 x 9 = 1800) + (50 x 18 = 900) or a total of 22500 = 22% less energy (fuel). The faster approach has the benefit of waiting at a red light for an extra 21 seconds. The natural deceleration by drag forces, that requires no fuel, also has the benefit of less wear on brakes.

If the driving technique involves a fast approach, then over time the additional fuel cost is very considerable. If the vehicle is heavier, the cost escalates significantly.

To 'benefit' from the higher-end of published performance data that 'sell' expensive cars, the cost overhead is enormous. Wealthy people probably don't notice (or care), but those buyers using credit and loan facilities, probably don't realise the cost trap being entered. 'Filling the tank' with ever-more expensive petrol will be an extraordinary wake-up call. The enormous mistake that could be made.

Egos are more expensive to run than

the extreme performance car

Travelling at 20mph near schools commonly meets with a lot of resistance. The 'inconvenience' of just a few seconds at the slower speed is enough to potentially kill or seriously injure a child (or any person).

50m at 20mph takes (about 32km/h) takes less than 6 seconds. To travel the same distance driving at 30mph (48km/h) would take under 4 seconds. The 'inconvenience' equates to a staggering 2 seconds.

Allegedly, reduced fuel economy is likely. No evidence or calculation is given to back up such a statement. That is absolutely not good enough. The arguments outlined on these pages:

Car Fuel Efficiency
Economical Driving
Economical Driving - The Physics
Fuel Consumption Ratings

makes such a statement outrageous. To travel slower and an increased fuel load? Impossible. The description suggests a lot of stop/start cycles on possibly a busy road. Whether 10, 20 or 30 mph (average), the fuel load would inevitably be high. The actual driving conditions are rather vague: up hill in 2nd gear at 20mph or driving faster in (presumably) a lower gear defines an increased momentum. This cannot possibly make driving any 'safer' when the collision impact between a hard (vehicle) with a soft (human) body is being considered. The relative kinetic energy (difference) between the two speeds (20mph and 30mph) for the same (mass) vehicle is x2.25 (v²/2):

(20 x 20)/2 vs (30 x 30)/2

= 200 vs 450 = x2.25

The momentum (mv) of an object (vehicle) travelling at the faster speed relative to a stationary object (human) is increased by a factor of x1.5 (20mph -> 30mph).

The easiest way to see this in action is to ride a 'bike. The muscular power required to make the machine move effectively translates directly to the fuel load an engine requires. The fatigue through exertion graphically illustrates how work varies with conditions.

Pyramid Geometry

2010-10-07T02:12:00.000-07:00

The dimensions of the Great Pyramid of Giza possess some fascinating connections. Pi ( $π$ ) is defined as the ratio of the diameter of a circle to its circumference (3.14159265...). The Fibonacci number (phi) is derived from the sequence 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610... where the sum of two preceding numbers gives the next number in the series. One number divided by the previous value moves towards phi and becomes ever closer to (approx) 1.6180339: or (√5 + 1 )/2. But why √5 and not some other relationship? But... it works and is therefore empirical as an irrational number (π is an irrational number). These two constants (π and phi) are related and appear in the pyramid shape. This combines the dimensions of the circle with the triangle.

One-half the base width (a = ...144, 233, 377...) and the corresponding slope [hypotenuse] (h = ...233, 377, 610... ) provide the angle θ (144/233, 233/377, 377/610... a/h = a constant nearing 0.618034). In terms of the trigonometric ratio, arccos θ = 0.618034 gives θ = 51.83º. This is the angle of the pyramid slope. The height (o) for a base pyramid base width of 754ft yields a x tanθ or height = 377 x 1.2729 = 489.9ft. The value of π = 4a/height (1508/479.9) = 3.142 and this always applies: eg a = 144 and h = 233 (a/h = 0.618) gives height as 233 x 1.2729 = 296.586ft or π = (233 x 4)/296.586 = 3.14242749.... See Pi, Phi and Fibonacci Numbers.

All the values are (rounded-up) approximations

Earth-Land Velocity

2010-08-05T01:56:00.000-07:00

The movement of land over or through a primordial surface would be like being dragged through treacle, but the hotter the submerged fluid, the more mobile it will be.

The dateline is defined as being before the appearance of water.

Lat    km/hr     Rel vel
(deg)

90          0    00.0% <- North polar axis
80        289          17.3% (* = 289/1668)
70        570          34.2% (* = 570/1668)
60        834          50.0% (* = 834/1668)
50        1072        64.3% (* = 1072/1668)
40        1278        76.6% (* = 1278/1668)
30        1444        86.6% (* = 1444/1668)
20        1568        94.0% (* = 1568/1668)
10        1643        98.5% (* = 1643/1668)
0        1668        100%    <- Equator
10        1643        98.5% (* = 1643/1668)
20        1568        94.0% (* = 1568/1668)
30        1444        86.6% (* = 1444/1668)
40        1278        76.6% (* = 1278/1668)
50        1072        64.3% (* = 1072/1668)
60        834          50.0% (* = 834/1668)
70        570          34.2% (* = 570/1668)
80        289          17.3% (* = 289/1668)
90         0       00.0%   <- South polar axis

* %age equatorial velocity

It is a feature of Earth (an oblate spheroid) that at 60deg from either pole (90deg), the velocity is 50% the equatorial value.

These figures show a curved (pseudo-linear) relationship between latitudes, but clearly demonstrate increasing velocity towards the equator. At one-third of the angular distance from the pole (60deg) towards the equator (0deg), the velocity is half the equatorial value (834km/h and 1668km/h). Each latitudinal separation is 15deg. This illustrates the reason for S. America being the shape it is and its altered coastline contour from N. America. Patagonia is relatively slow moving compared to the eastern coast of Brazil at the equator that moves the fastest. The Peruvian and Chilean coastlines would be straighter without the exaggerated curve centred around Bolivia. Mexico would be pulled eastward caused by the velocity differential (northern Mexico: 30deg = 1444km/h -> southern Mexico: 20deg = 1568km/h [differerntial: 124km/h] and the difference between Cuba/Dominican Republic: 20deg = 1568km/h and north Venezuela coast: 10deg = 1643km/h. The further towards the equator the relative velocity differential reduces, but the actual velocity still increases.

All of this does enable some remarkable conclusions to be drawn with respect to the N. American and the S. American coastlines. In fact, every land mass on the planet and throws the ('established') Pangaea theory into considerable confusion, even though the concept may be valid in principle (future communication).

Small Bites

2010-08-05T01:27:00.000-07:00

The following lists are the growing compilation of some issues that time does not allow for an in-depth analysis and are not necessarily chronological.

Some articles are, however, linked to more complete entries.

001 - 099
100 - 198 (Last Updated: 26th November 2011)

Small Bites: 100 - 198

2010-08-05T01:26:00.000-07:00

100. The number of cells in the human body is estimated to be over 100 trillion (10^14):

100,000,000,000,000

The body is a finite size, yet the extent of the Universe is completely unknowable. The 'estimated' number of stars in only the known Universe is (probably) between 10^22 and 10^24. But this can be only pure speculation. In a dark room there is no way of knowing how far away the walls may be.

101. Fission bomb: a single, large atom (uranium) splits releasing a huge quantity of energy and this atom required that amount of energy in its formation. Fusion bomb is the opposite. Hydrogen atoms combine yielding helium and energy. As war-machine devices (bombs), both explode outwards. When this implodes, the energy is used to compress matter. No expansion, no noise by sound shock wave. This gives a quiet and smooth energy supply of enormous yield. An engine for launching spacecraft capable of unimaginable speed. Harnessing a lightning bolt retains fantastic energy levels for later use. The number of storms around the planet at any one time would provide enough energy for all for a very long time.

102. Amorphous solids come out of solution from molten rock (a mixture of inorganic compounds) since they cannot crystallise. The concentration of any one compound is not sufficient to allow true crystallisation.

103. The elegant simplicity of the digestion system, the conversion of foodstuffs into energy and its transport to every cell that number trillions. Enzymatic degradation and dilution of complex matter into its constituent parts with the eventual recovery of water before removal of waste matter.

104. The Big Bang needed space to expand into. Or the pressure wave (in all directions) pushed its way to 'create' space.

105. The arrogance of Man is borne in the belief that as the species languishing at the top as the most advanced, sophisticated and intelligent, the blindness of denial explains the obvious oversight that evolution continues in spite of Man. All the support drugs and crutches to sustain an ever faltering species, the evolutionary adaptations overtake a species in decline. Evolution involves change and Man resists change not realising that evolutionary changes and adaptations can happen spontaneously.

106. An ancient virus released from frozen water is as dangerous as a new one. The current status to resistance is disadvantaged to deal with either scenario. Any evolutionary adaptation would be ineffective at withstanding the old.

107. Urine is the most abundant waste product on Earth? No. Composed mostly of water it cannot be waste. The dissolved components may be, but water? Never. It is a life force. The irony is clear.

108. Alcohol problems:

125,000 fuelled domestic violence incidents
2,000,000 related domestic violence
39,000 sexual assaults
1,300,000 affected children
6,000 fetal alcohol syndrome
660 children killed/injured
7,000 non-drinker injured by drink drivers
560 drink driving fatalities
1,250,000 alcohol related vandalism
Binge drinking continues to escalate
Some town centres allegedly becoming no go areas

109. That human (science) thinking is still completely locked inside the box can be illustrated by working with the fixed idea of the Big Bang and that everything that exists everywhere is based on the same physical laws. Laws are only descriptions of observations that appear to be successful and it can only be assumption or speculation that enables this to be accepted without challenge. The fundamental issue here is: a universe expanding into what? Space void? So, where does this space come from?

110. Can genetically modified produce adapt a species? Humans and animals are both carnivores and Humans omnivores. Neither has 'evolved' into another species. But this presupposes a long period for any adaptation to take place. The most likely target is the single egg/sperm cells. What is the sperm and why are so many present at fertilisation when only one is required?

111. The confused message interpretation when the body requires nourishment. It may be water and can be confused as hunger, but what is hunger? Clearly, something is required though for what reason? This could be sugar (carbohydrate) for an energy boost or protein for the unheard cry for tissue growth or repair. Fat levels may be reduced so biochemical processes are failing. Too little fat can be as dangerous as too much. The mind can confuse other perceptions, too. Is fear being felt or is it excitement?

112.Reasoned debate is becoming more urgently necessary as climate change and global warming issues continue to gather pace. The brakes must be applied to slow the engine before a disaster consumes all human life. Other animal life will inevitably survive since it has no driving motivation based on greed.

113. As Earth orbit radius inevitably increases, the 'year' gets longer. So began 360 days and as many degrees in a circle. Now distorted at 365.25 days/year. How long would this increase take?

114. Titius-Bode: the eighth planet (Neptune) is too close (30.1AU) to the Sun to fit the empirical formula. It should be 38.8AU, but can be explained as massive aerobraking dragged the outermost gas giant inwards and the momentum energy of the 'Moon' object was dissipated and lost.

115. Pluto may not fit as a solar system 'planet', but its presence must not be overlooked. It's orbit may be different though this may be an effect of AU distance. Electron orbits are defined differently depending on orbital-type. The 'captured' object whatever its origin does exist.

116. The boiling point of diamond is 4827 degC and graphite: 4200 degC. The temperature at the surface of the Sun (photosphere) is in the region of 6000degC.

117. The detail of the mechanics involved in genetics is highly complex, but the principle is surprisingly simple. An aircraft may be a very complex machine, but it does rely on straightforward principles to enable flight and actually operate as an aircraft. Regarding DNA, two halves of a very long amino acid chain (the alleles, one from the male and the other from the female) combine to form a single double length chain (zygote) that forms the template from which a human is produced. Or a different living animal, be it a fish or a bird or a cat depending on the template. The basic components are essentially the same. The chain is constructed from four basic blocks that are assembled in the most part in an identical way and the order in which a number of these units combine results in a different and unique sequence. Should several identical aircraft stand beside one another, they can each be made to appear quite unique simply by finishing in a different colour. A minor change can result in an apparently very different aircraft, although as aircraft they are all identical. In the case of animals (including humans), very minor differences at specific places within the template will result in individual creatures that are essentially the same. Not exact copies as in clones, but very, very similar.

118. Can two alleles, both from a female (or male), be forced to combine? Parthenogenesis.

119. It is estimated that 125,000 years ago the Antarctic temperature was some 6degs warmer than today (deep ice core analysis). The assumption is that the sea was warmer. If the latitude was further up towards the equator by virtue of continental ‘drift’ then warmer conditions would be met. Any change in the axial tilt of the Earth could be caused very simply by weight redistribution over the surface. The internal liquid (mantle) would not necessarily move in synchrony with the outside shell on which the (shifting) land resides. Continual imbalances are inevitable.

120. An effective and clandestine mouth swab source for DNA would be used cutlery. This would potentially be totally unknown to the subject.

121. The ecliptic plane somehow connects all planets and orbits. An overall retrograde direction may apply, but this defines a combination of orbital direction and the direction of axial rotation. A planet may circumnavigate the Sun, effectively upside down. If axial rotation were 'normal', then the orbital direction would be opposite. The gravitational influence of counter-orbiting bodies 'passing' each other at very high relative velocity would be enormous.

122. Uranus has a retrograde and not prograde rotation direction. This planet has been inverted: it's orbital direction remains the same, though it is 'upside down' and the axial angle is roughly perpendicular to the plane of orbit. This is possibly a result of a 'moon object' entering the solar system. Planet Neptune was the initial encounter with enormous aerobraking, so the consequence of the altered trajectory at reduced speed manifested differently for Venus.

123. Perversely, combustion of 'fossil fuel' releases both carbon dioxide and water and both of these are originally destroyed (or converted) to form the 'fossil fuel'.

124. The addition of salt to sea water could possibly be used to increase the concentration and extend use of solid salt. The roads could then be 'sprayed' with it. Have any studies been conducted to test such an idea?

125. Rate of melting increases as surface area is reduced, though surrounding heat input does not significantly change. Melting of ice formations appears to accelerate.

126. What is regarded as constituting 'life'? Consciousness? Plants and rocks are different, but...

127. The S-shape swimming stroke is critical to speed creation. Without resistance, any stroke is made in the same direction as already moving water and any resistance is reduced as the consequence. As the body rolls, this S-shape is translated into a vertical conformation. Pushing behind develops the power in the stroke and does not stress the shoulder joint. It is a similar principle to a slipstream. In some circumstances (running or car racing), a reduction in resistance will enhance motion, but swimming in water has the opposite effect. It is moving out of the slipstream that enhances progress by creating a relatively non-moving mass and collecting relatively 'still' water has the effect of removing this undesirable slipstream. An incorrect hand-entry angle and failure to 'keep the elbow high' and 'over-the-barrel' will increase drag as the forearm paddle (hand + forearm) pushes against the flow and doesn't cut through it.

128. The invention of the dark matter concept is an attempt to force fit data into a contrived theory. This demonstrates the absolute limit of human imagination. Similar to trying to describe the front and back of an image simultaneously. The brain cannot deal with it. The practice continues to massage a theory to make a better theory and in the process move away from a discredited idea and into another untested one. One that enables more cherry picked ideas to be associated with the untested theory.

129. The whole concept of the Big Bang theory is a real non-starter. The idea goes nowhere from nothing. That something is created from nothing is a conundrum. The matter in the universe is apparently very little, but how this can be assessed is completely unknown. If the Big Bang can ever be considered a credible concept, then what started everything rotating? If gravity is the consequence of rotation then this creates a Catch-22 scenario.

130. The unique wavelength of infra-red emitted from a heater is absorbed readily by the skin and provides warmth similar to an open fire. The heat is instant - no warm-up time and the heater warms people directly without the need to heat the air first.

131. The Federal Analog Act only applies to drugs intended for human consumption.

132. Glaciers melt and cause flooding, but change is not met by people moving to avoid the consequences. Instead action attempts to resist these consequences. Not winnable as mankind's ego presumes invincibility. The perception of a contest has already caused it to be lost.

133. The search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) has been ongoing for some 50 years. No evidence of any potential contact has been found. The 50 year window is infinitesimally small compared to the accepted age of the Universe: around 13.75bn years. That any alien intelligence desiring 'to be found' has not been located is a remote possibility in any case, assuming any theories of the age of the Universe are anything near being 'correct'. An alien intelligence could illustrate wisdom by not responding and simply staying silent. Again, assuming a similarly Human psyche. Probably, an investigative look has already happened. It's incredibly naïve to presuppose any thinking is like the Human objective and any intelligence capable of responding would probably have already known about Earth. Another major assumption is that the advancements in sophistication has occurred in a similar time-scale to that on Earth. Even 400 years. And remove the restrictive ideologies of religion that have shackled any advancements to the past and there is little to provide any chance of alien interest. However, the Earth could provide numerous raw materials for an advanced intelligence with advanced technologies. The scope for any unknown (to an alien) ores would mean considerable 'scientific' examination. Perhaps collection and removal to the 'home planet' would define any possibility of a return if something useful was found.

134. Obliquity (Axial Tilt) And Climate Change. The Earth does not orbit the Sun in a perfect circle or a regular elliptical track. Neither is the Sun in the middle.

135. Vaccines are given to children who are intrinsically healthy and free of illness and who also will have an under-developed immune system. A similar prophylactic scenario to statins given to healthy people with the aim of preventing a heart attack that may never happen anyway. This is forcing drug therapy onto well people who don't need it.

136. Monocular and binocular vision: mental focus of image and peripheral vision. Is the visual cortex more sophisticated to enable simultaneous up-down-behind vision with the depth perception of binocular vision?

137. Does cancer originate from a genome that is changing in subtle ways? Not obvious physiognomy, but physiological changes. This implies an heredity (familial) link to cancers. The concept of eating other animals may have endured for the lifespan of the 'human' carnivore, but in recent times altering the DNA of foodstuffs (GM) has potentially accelerated damaging changes. If the genetics of an individual remain unchanged, then uncontrolled replication of a renewed cell suggests addition of something that affects the regeneration. Cells age and replacement of a dying cell can at this point be interfered with.

138. Exercise and weight loss are sometimes quite confused and confusing. One extreme is the failure to eat: food denial. Depending on the food type consumed, the mix of protein, carbohydrate and fat will vary. Protein repairs tissue and builds muscle that has undergone the stress necessary for growth. Without stressing muscle, it will not adapt to deal with future demands. The more stress and subsequent growth, the more capable and efficient it will become. Carbohydrate is required to undergo energetic activities and such a raised level is a requirement to 'burn off' fat. If a certain level of intensity is not reached, fat stores will not be appreciably reduced. Fat will not be touched unless a minimum start-point of activity intensity is attained. Exercise regimes must be gradually 'ramped-up' to achieve this starting point. Maintenance of this level for at least 30 minutes daily will consume fat stores and a continued quality diet is essential to achieve permanent weight control. The exercise regime and a good nutrient (diet) intake will satisfy any realistc goals. Carbohydrate is an essential for weight control and failure to consume carbohydrate will not enable a sufficient exercise intensity to burn fat. Failure to eat properly will not achieve healthy weight control. Eat yourself thin is absolutely true and if this is not done properly then weight loss may be the result, but ill-health will surely follow.

139. The genetic make-up for individuals is truly unique. No two individuals can be alike. Only actual clones can do that where the genome is copied exactly. All 3 billion or so letters (nucleotides) in its code sequence from start to finish. Identical twins are very similar and even if the appearance traits do not reveal differences, an entire formative years 'lifetime' of experience every moment of that lifetime could never be duplicated. Someone who is 5' 9" tall can never be 6' in height. It's a genetic impossibility. Body mass potential is genetic, but even though the physical appearance can be affected, the individual's potential can never be altered. The body can and does store fat and its physical appearance can vary depending on diet, yet the original genetic potential still does not change. When excess fat is 'burnt off', either by diet or diet and exercise the original appearance will be restored. Eating habits are by definition psychological and to reduce an undesirable excess if body weight the brain must be engaged. The physiology and psychology of the individual complement each other and cannot be separated. Focusing on either one will still involve the other. An athlete must work on both the technique of the sport and nutrition. These techniques may be specific to the sport, but nutrition is a common factor regardless of the discipline. A runner, weightlifter or gymnast must still use quality foodstuffs since they are all human even though they are individuals with a different genetic make-up. Human physiology works in the same way for all humans. Sports specificity is unique to a sport and will vary between different sports, but whatever sport is adopted the human remains human. Any future genomic adaptation is in the realms of science fiction and science fantasy.

140 Use of statins: possibly for use only by those unable to exercise to safely raise the intensity sufficiently and increase blood flow rate. The heart is a muscle, but health issues may compromise efforts to effect change. The arterial fat (cholesterol) may possibly only be reduced by drugs. However, when drugs have lowered any fat build up that may cause blockages to blood flow, exercise should take the place of drugs, but only if advised by a doctor. Coming off statins is not a simple affair and is a major reason that they are potentially harmful in the longer term: potential (physical) dependency.

141. The ellipticity of an orbit is the measurement that defines the change in its shape from more circular to a further extremity in the one (long) axis. The duration of an orbit is assumed to be unchanged over the 100,000 year cycle, but that could never be verified. Were the origins of 360 degs (one revolution) discovered to be the length of a day deep in human history, then the extension of a year to its current 365.25 days would illustrate a longer orbit of 5.25 days and probably further way from the Sun. But that's pure speculation.

The conical 'slice' description that defines an ellipse requires the angle to tilt with its central location unchanged. This would then relate to the ecliptic of transit around the Sun and defines a deviation from planar. Only a degree or so would produce change and if the angle of axial tilt does not change, the appearance is that it does though the actual cause may be that the ecliptic has moved. The precession of the equinoxes may have its origins in the variation of the ecliptic plane. The obliquity of the Earth is the change in the apparent axial tilt angle (21.5 degs -> 24.5 degs). This could be the change in the ecliptic and not a precession. The observed effects would be indistinguishable. Each planet's ecliptic probably varies, though staying roughly in the same plane.

142. Much of the confusion surrounding diets is created by disinformation. This is to commonly peddle the diet. Diet is misunderstood by being interpreted as short-term. Diet is the long-term (life-term) overall eating regime. Even that sounds inflexible, but it is just a way of life. In moderation, no food type need be excluded. Simply consumed occasionally. What is damaging is when a poor food quality becomes incorporated as the staple diet.

A restricted carbohydrate intake should be more rigorously enforced than a small excess of fat unless the exercise level demands it. High intensity, especially if for long periods, requires sugars to enable it. Unused sugar (carbohydrate) converts to fat in the body for storage. Sugar storage capacity (as glycogen) is limited: liver and muscle. When used up it must be replaced or further work will be severely curtailed. The lower intensity aerobic rate then allows fat to be used as the energy source. Low intensity for long periods for fat combustion. Short periods of high intensity anaerobic work require carbohydrate. The distinction between a sprint and a 'jog'. A sprint is very short 'explosive' work and a jog can be very lengthy, but at a much lower intensity. A slow walk for several miles will consume fat almost exclusively. The rate of fat loss is also slow. Fat is a very efficient storage medium for large amounts of work. A lot more low intensity (sustained) work can be performed.

143. The exact match in human DNA between two individuals is considered impossible. Such a match legally defines the individual. Comparing two single and assumed unique samples uses between 10-13 different locations (loci), but in many places non-coding 'junk' DNA exists. The 'junk' is regarded as having no known function, though such sequences cannot be defined as useless. Only that the function is unknown. The fact that it is there suggests purpose though (currently) that cannot be explicitly verified.

A specific protein is synthesised from a gene and any such protein must be common to all humans. Otherwise humans would all function in different mutant forms, if at all, and a single genetic error can produce devastating effects. Particular traits (hair, eye, skin colour and individual physiognomy) all combine to differentiate individuals from each other, but as only visible differences don't generally affect physical function. Similar in principle to a stroke: brain tissue death in critical region can severely affect function. Elsewhere, no obvious damage may be evident.

144. SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) could easily be thwarted by keeping 'radio silence'. In warfare it is a standard practice when someone is assumed to be monitoring or listening-in.

145. The complexity and variety of life on Earth and the conviction and 'belief' of many that this planet is the only one in the Universe that houses any life (either less or more advanced) is amazing in its naïvety. That nowhere else has any life, but of the literally countless billions of suns... there is nothing? Statistically, this is absolute nonsense and logically, it does not stand-up to reason. The exclusivity to Earth is significant. Life may flourish on Goldilocks Earth, but it didn't start here. That defines its beginnings elsewhere in the past. This also suggests an absolutely older and, as a consequence, potentially more advanced origin. Some find that very disquieting and so religion flourishes. The belief in an unknown entity seems to be less worrying than accepting an alternative (currently unverifiable) explanation. It's the denial of 'God' by those who believe in 'God'. Very paradoxical.

146. Gravitational bending of light is the explanation for stars that can be observed during an eclipse of the Sun. They are behind the Sun. However, the brightness of the light could distort observation and give the appearance of a different location. Refraction.

147. Three colours are detectable by the human eye-brain system: yellow, green and violet. Light and consequently colour is not itself discrete though detection gives the appearance that it is. It is a continuous analogue waveform of a vast array of colours. Blending of primary colours yields interference patterns. Computer colour is discrete and digital, yet is incomplete compared to analogue. Even then much can still be missing and must depend on the limits of detection.

148. A taxiing jet will suddenly be heard when that engine points toward the observer. The same with light: only when head-on is light 'seen', but is otherwise not visible. Stray light reflected off atmospheric dust creates the illusion that this is untrue. Consider moonlight. Reflected glare reveals the presence of the Moon only. Moonlight isn't seen unless looking directly at the object or its light bounces off something (is reflected). The light remains invisible until something interferes with it.

149. Standing at a window half way up a tall building looking out at a (very) high rise block opposite, both the top and foot of the building are seen with the edges converging to distant points. At any height of the observer's location, the outside edges to right and left are parallel, yet up and down appear to be non-parallel. The same illusion potentially happens with light: light travels in straight lines and gravity does not need to be involved in 'bending' light even though the illusion of convergence can make it appear to be so. Straight lines in 2D become curves in 3D. An (imaginary) longitude line drawn on the Earth from the north polar axis point southwards forms a right angle at the equator. At the pole, a similar line at 90degs (east or west) to the first one descends to the equator bisecting it forming a right angle. The two parallel straight lines over a curved surface from the equator to the polar axis point converge in 3D or each of the three right angles (equator to pole and at the pole itself) describe a triangle over a curved surface. Curve of constant width. The 'flat' Earth illusion is caused by water (held by gravity) located over a curved surface.

150. Hot daytime, freezing cold night. Where? Equatorial desert regions. This is where the concept of climate change and global warming gets confused. It does not consider areas of winter deserts like the Gobi Desert.

151. Interpretations can be based on nothing more than a model. The seismic P-wave (pressure or primary) from earthquakes are claimed to move at up to 47,000km/h and can travel through the Earth, but are refracted by the boundaries between the mantle and inner and outer cores. Detection in certain locations relative to the earthquake is prevented according to this theory and the strength at different sites around the globe so provides insights into the Earth's interior. S-waves (shear waves) travel at half the speed of P-waves. Like the ripples through a shaken rope. They are rapidly damped (unlike P-waves) by the liquid metal mix of the outer core and so they are prevented from being detected at sites opposite the original earthquake. S-waves are generated from P-waves as they strike the inner core. Analysis of them has revealed key data about the innermost regions of the Earth. All this relies on unverifiable models. Similar to examining an inaccessible tumour by interpretation of scans. If the scan can eventually be compared with the actually excised physical lesion, it is possible to raise the quality of the original observation. Without testing the observation, caution must always be levelled against the interpretation against the model.

152. Connection between urinary infection and memory issues?

153. The loss of body fat is at its least visible at the outset, be it outside-in or inside-out. The outer suface of a sphere is the greatest surface area.

154. Puncturing the Earth's mantle would potntially be like damaging an arterial wall. The internal pressure could cause an outflow of the entire contents of the inner Earth. A volcano eruption without end. Deepwater Horizon was an indicator on a miniscule scale of the potential disaster.

155. Light is similar in storage capacity to other forms of energy. Carbohydrate cannot be stored in a usable large amout and must first be converted into fat. Light cannot be stored, but must be converted into electricity for storage in a battery.

156. The values of pi (π) and phi are related and appear in the pyramid structure (a trigonometry property of pyramid dimensions). One-half the base (a = ...144, 233, 377...) and the corresponding slope [hypotenuse] (h = ...233, 377, 610... ) provide the angle θ (144/233, 233/377, 377/610... a/h = a constant or 0.618). In terms of the trigonometric ratio, arcsin θ = 0.618 gives θ = 51.84º. The height (o) for a base pyramid base width of 754ft yields a x tanθ or height = 377 x 1.2729 = 489.9ft. The value of π = 4a/height (1508/479.9) = 3.142 and this always applies: eg a = 144 and h = 233 (a/h = 0.618) gives height as 233 x 1.2729 = 296.59ft or π = (233 x 4)/296.59 = 3.142. See Pi, Phi and Fibonacci Numbers.

157. If the spiral galaxy is essentially flat, then direction will affect distance.

158. If the universe is spherical and not just circular, then depending on the direction of rotation, the speed at various points will vary as for a sphere. Equatorial and fast or polar and slow. The peculiar concept of the Big Bang should form a spherical universe.

159. Conversion of nitrogen into ammonia with the enzyme vanadium nitrogenase. Molybdenum nitrogenase converts CO (with nitrogen excluded) into ethylene, ethane and propane.

160. How rigorous can any interactions in a multi-drug regime be known? The biological response within the body to one drug may initiate some unknown effect: genes can be 'switched-on' by other genes.

161. The engine power of a battle tank is around 1500bhp. As for the power for cars, should that be not enough?

162. The Big Bang seen from a more involved scene (existing inside) can simply be an exploding space object: a supernova.

163. Difference between centrifugal, centriptal and gravitational forces. Gravity has no physical tether, but the result is identical. The conservation principle (Newton) and the inclination to maintain a straight line is still prevented.

164. Gravity is the same for all locations at the same radius from the centre of an object. This produces layers of surfaces much like onion rings resulting in a spherical body.

165. Magnetic properties: iron oxide on the red surface of Mars must affect the effects.

166. Elliptic orbits and velocity at different positions are relative to the other planets.

167. The Fibonacci number is a mathematical (constant) description of a spiral. An extensively natural shape. The pyramids express this connection, but that does not necssarily connect with knowledge of the relationship. This simply observes a known (non-mathematical) relationship.

168. Friction within a moving object causes heat: if orbital motion could be captured, then heat creation would be essentially limitless.

169. The Big Bang Theory as a hypothesis can focus on the first few quadrillionths of a second or sooner of something that is proposed to have happened 5 billion years ago. Bizarre.

170. Wind turbines are positioned to rotate at 90degs to the air flow. Translation of motion needs to be geared like traction from a car engine to its wheels. A funnel can collect wind and vents can be used to divert excess pressure to control flow without interruption. Stopping a turbine on excessively windy days negates the purpose of the wind turbine since wind cannot be used. Considerable forces are still applied on the structure even though it is not producing energy. The use of wind is right, but the application is wrong. It is just a crude quick 'fix' to make a 'fast buck' by exploiting current projections of future needs. It provides a method for profiteering bankrolled (underwritten) by the people.

171. It is clear that in science circles, more often the term 'denier' supersedes 'skeptic'.

172. Apogee, perigee, aphelion, perihelion are all related to apsis.

173. How can ice survive in a vacuum? How cold must it be to prevent evaporation?

174. Lunar libration describes the Moon's 'wobble'. It's cause must be related to motion as it orbits about the Earth and the associated constantly changing trajectory and velocities. The influence of passing (distant) planets may have an effect (weak or strong).

175. The human genome has allegedly been mapped. What evidence is there to verify this 'fact'?

176. Ellipticity shape defines warm/cold periods. Long axis is further away from heat source and a short axis defines being closer (the Sun). This translates into colder winters/warmer summers as the distances change with the amount of ellipticity.

177. When the biological system is challenged to maintain a stable environment the immune system gets depressed. Does this explain what a 'cold' really is. Not an invasion by a virus, but just the organism attempting to cope. Are 'cold' symptoms no more than just that? The symptoms of change to stability.

179. Wind turbine convert horizontal movement to rotational. The funnel creates a spiral rotation in the same direction as the inflow. The orientation of the engine (dynamo) can be altered and the turbine itself left unmoved. The efficiency must be increased and all frictional load on the bearings is removed. The sails are not necessary to 'catch' the wind and valves can divert excess wind force away by 'bleeding off'.

180. Volume : surface area ratio controls planetary cooling.

181. The sequence 1 : 4 : 9 : 16 : 25 : 36 : 49 : 64 : 81... describes the decreasing height of a pyramid to its reducing weight (square function).

182. The issue of balance and hearing deficit with cranial nerve damage. Walking and any activity that requires directional change is problematic, yet the tumble-turn in swimming carries no orientation issues. This suggests the speed of response to direction change (spinning, turning) may be affected. However, the swimming technique is fast and still is not a problem. No detrimental effect to create a hazard, yet a standing spin-turn on land is not possible that allows any degree of personal safety.

183. The concept of the Big Bang defines the 'start'. There can, therefore, be nothing more distant than 13.7bn light years. The measurement of a distant object at 13bn light years raises the obvious question: how? On what premise can such a value ever be measured other than using completely untestable speculation. It also illustrates how tightly thinking is kept "in the box" and such questions just don't get asked. The box stays shut and everybody seems content. Science cannot ever be allowed to show doubt and is probably a reason that a new theory can so easily overturn the old ('conventional wisdom'). There is no gap between the old and its replacement. The new ideas slide seamlessly in to replace the old. And no room for doubt. This should scream caution, but... NO. Just unquestioning acceptance. Agreeing never challenges and tests beliefs.

184. Heat is drawn up a chimney and the less dense warm air is replaced by colder more dense air from beneath the column of warmer air. The result is an apparent down-draft. The question is: when does the temperature change between cold and warm air become noticeable?

185. Sap rising drawn up by the evaporation of water from the leaves.

186. The weight of air pushing down on the body is 14lbs/sq.in at sea level. It makes sense that creatures stand vertically to reduce pressure on the body from above. The simple act of lying down exposes the body to a greater burden of weight pressing down upon it (per unit area).

187. SETI predefines and assumes.

188. The most important concept to bear in mind is that science supports and confirms intuitive common sense. Not the other way around: using science to propose ideas that may not always be intuitive. This can mystify and confuse. This could easily be used as a propaganda weapon. Politicians are known to have inferred: 'you are too thick to understand...'

189. Double the propulsive force and speed will increase 4-fold, but this also defines the resistance when pushing against water. This is exactly the same effect as for cars or humans moving through air. And three times the speed yields 9 times the resistance an so on. Cars and petrol consumption should be considered in a similar way: the faster the vehicle then the greater the air resistance and the consequential fuel consumption.

190. For those couples who cannot conceive their own child, how does donation of an egg from a third party constitute having their own child. The egg donation brings with it the genome of another person and cannot be anything to do with the surrogate host? The recipient of the donation. The resulting child (if a successful pregnancy) can be nothing to do with the new 'mother'. Rather than a third party (surrogate) being impregnated with sperm (donated from an unrelated male) the infertile female receives a donated egg. In both cases the offspring cannot be 50:50 from the 'infertile' couple. Half the resulting genome is foreign and it can only be delusion that the child is their own 'total' production.

191. Heat is drawn up a chimney and the less dense warm air is replaced by colder more dense air from below and is 'pulled' up.. The result is an effective down-draught caused by an upward disturbance. The question is: when does the temperature change between cold and warm air become noticeable?

192. Sap rising drawn up by the evaporation of water from the leaves higher up.

193. The weight of air pushing down on the body is 14lbs/sq.in at sea level. It makes sense that creatures stand vertically to reduce pressure on the body from above. The simple act of lying down exposes the body to a greater burden of weight pressing down upon it.

194. SETI predefines and assumes.

195. The most important concept to bear in mind is that the science supports and confirms intuitive common sense. Not the other way around: using science to propose ideas that may not always be intuitive. This can mystify and confuse.

196. From the moment of conception, the growing foetus is feeding off its host (mother) as a typical parasite.

197. Do trees hibernate? Tree growth rings are periods of no growth or sap rising.

198. A problem with alcohol resembles the intake of food. The brain does not register satiety for something like 20-30 mins and neither is the effect of alcohol immediate. The result is the introduction of excess.

199. If sunlight is refracted by Earth's atmosphere during a lunar eclipse, why is red (refracted most) the only colour seen? Should not the other six colours of the spectrum ensure that Moon changes colours through red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet?

Small Bites: 001 - 099

2010-08-05T01:17:00.001-07:00

1. Does reflected light from a mirror double the output or halve it? Two bulbs shine as four. Two overlapping shadows become additively darker, so can the same principle apply: two light sources additively get brighter from a light source's own reflection? But this would involve the creation of (light) energy and according to the Conservation of Energy this would be disallowed. However, this only applies to a closed system. What constitutes a closed system when considering a small part of a system within a bigger system? This becomes a semantic argument.

2. Can DNA be ‘planted’ to incriminate someone?

3. Headache when brain has no nervous system. It is apparently caused by the dilation of blood vessels. So, it is a referred-type pain? What is pain? Is it psychologically perceived and 'created' in and by the brain? But what actually is pain?

4. Equilibration of air pressure is required before introducing an atmosphere. Disaster will strike otherwise.

5. Quantum entanglement: as opposed to physically connected to cause movement, no actual connection and maybe a long way apart. Like air pressure making a valve close. No visible agent causing the movement. But not air. Something else. Something not tangible and invisible.

6. Celestial mechanics is complex, but the principle is quite straightforward.

7. Presence of phosphorus and nitrogen based fertilisers causes an increase in CO2 output (18% and 22%, respectively).

8. The auto industry is moving towards hydrogen as an alternative fuel. The message? Petrol-fuelled engines will soon become obsolete.

9. Lightning at Saturn. What causes that phenomenon? What creates lightning?

10. Dopamine gene and what is the effect if it gets switched off?

11. How can waves move through a vacuum? Is it illusion?

12. Physical particles don't "create" an opposite. A plus force automatically creates a minus opposing force. They co-exist mutually.

13. How is gravity affected by rotational speed?

14. Virus trapped in ice: when the ice melts, what are the consequences? If the virus survives the cold conditions, it will surely behave as though it had been in suspended animation. Any animal organism that has adapted over many thousands or more years will react as though the virus were new and not ancient.

15. Gaseous mixtures as they warm up become less dense if not confined in a box (molecular collisions increase and molecules move apart). Hot air rises and creates wind as it moves away from cooler air. At high altitude it sinks as it cools. The rotation of the Earth over the time to rise and sink again means the air mass has moved eastwards in the northern hemisphere. The point where the air was heated creates a depression of low pressure. When the air sinks it does the reverse - high pressure anticyclone. High goes to low so air masses move from anticyclones to depressions. This is a general principle, though local effects can change behaviour quite dramatically. Bottlenecks like valleys or mountains can slow or accelerate depending on the original direction.

16. In the north, wind blows clockwise around an anticyclone and anticlockwise around a depression (reversed in the south). The vortex created in a plughole is clockwise in the northern hemisphere. Down the drain and likened to an anticyclone by increasing pressure?

17. The essential weather systems of the Earth can be hostile to Human or any other lifeform. Depressions causing upflow of water to be carried by the wind is critical. Any interference is dangerous. The Earth has survived 100s of millions of years. Man has been around for only a few hundred thousand years. Man is not a successful species. Yet.

18. Carbon dioxide and methane from the rotting of dead vegetation and other organic matter increased (both are greenhouse gases) causing a temp increase in line with a more active Sun (getting hotter) and less oxygen being produced.

19. Remember originally there was no oxygen. This was tied up in inorganic sources like rocks. These were formed with the release of large amounts of water from which the oceans derive. Earth was then able to flourish. Oxygen breathing creatures evolved to scavenge this poison and regenerate the CO2 to aid the survival of plants.

Review plants/animals both carnivores and herbivores and how each would separately evolve.

20. The curvature of the Earth is not noticed by moving between two points A and B when they are close together. It appears to be simply a straight line without any deviation. An observer sees the curve from a different point of view. The illusion is possible because it's a shallow curve.

21. Conventional methods of propulsion rely on action/reaction with the environment. Unless escape this thinking will never get past the first post. General relativity deals with gravity. Quantum theory with the very small. Even atoms have gravity, although very small. This is the difference between the micro- and the macroscopic. The deformation is not of space or time (the four dimensions, but there are more than these)when a mass is placed inside it, but of the mass itelf. It just seems this way. The perception. The illusion. The integration of new thinking or ideas into conventional physics is as wrong and limiting as the idea that the Sun goes around the Earth, which is NOT the centre of the Universe. It takes a leap of the imagination to go forward now rather than waiting for it to be proved valid. Literally wasting time.

22. Femtosecond (time): one quadrillionth of a second; "one thousandth of a nanosecond". Ppm, ppb, ppt. Even with this, cannot approach the levels of accuracy necessary.

23. Trace Fe in blood (around 30 -> 35mg total in 8 pints?). Local gravity effects within the physiological system only need be very slight to predispose towards chiral molecules. Check out ortho- and para- H2O molecules.

24. It's always concerned with shape and electronic charge distribution. Must not be seduced by the pictures that represent molecules. This is missing the point of interactive site location and as the whole molecule is necessary to create an effect.

25. Reverse the explosion sequence to get implosion idea. Gas to solid. Small space creation: 14KNO3 + 4S + 12C = 4K2SO4 + 3K2CO3 + 8CO2 + CO + 7N2

26. Sun's differential rotation. Middle rotates faster that poles.

27. Why not alchemy? Same basic atom: neutrons, protons and electrons. Arrangement of the heavier particles cause difference of local gravity and space and time. Change the arrangement, get altered atom/element. Compare with radio-emissions and conversion to another element. Same principle.

28. Oily appearance of water shows something has been dissolved in a miscible solvent and the solution added to the water.

29. The water overhead to produce food is staggering. Between 2000-5000 litres of water for 1kg rice. One thousand litres for 1kg wheat. To yield just one 'quarter pounder' takes 11,000 litres to raise the cow that produces it. And 2000-4000l for a litre of milk. Over 3000l for 1kg sugar. That 1kg coffee tips over 20,000l (20 tonnes).

30. 'Rainwater harvesting' is the efficient collection of water from rainfall. Slowing it down to fill the tanka (derivation of tanks from this Indian word).

31. Perception of temperature variation caused by atmosphere. The change in the distance between the sun and earth is only a few million miles though the amount of radiated heat striking the earth is roughly a constant. The heat potential is not much less the further away the earth is. It is too little change in distance for that. The atmosphere does it all. Without the atmosphere the variation of temperature wouldn't happen. The oceans act as a giant heatsink, absorbing this heat. About one half of the surface of the earth is water constrained on one side. One third is dry land and this absorbs heat in daytime. Land absorbs and releases heat quickly. Water absorbs heat and releases this very slowly by comparison, but look at hurricanes and cyclones. The effects of heat have enormous consequences. The consequences move very fast changing the Earths's atmosphere as it goes. Chaos and disturbance are features of the earth. The human condition almost subconsciously accepts this and this has its own consequence. It is no wonder that the nature of humans is somewhat chaotic and very unsettled.

32. When mountains are eroded by the environment, natural shape is crudely conical. The final shape depends on prevailing winds. Pyramid mimics this effect with the four general directions to reduce wear. The original smooth, white finish... what purpose?

33. Differentiation between atoms made up of same protons, neutrons and electrons - anything else? Why are the atomic forces so able to keep the atoms so discrete? Distinct. Remarkable. Like galaxies? Gravitational forces so separate between them. Great distances involved.

34. Is gravity purely a result of motion? Difference between gravity and magnetism. How does centripetal/centrifugal force fit?

35. Gas Giants: are they just too big and not condensed or compacted into smaller entities.

36. 'Quantum entanglement'. If quarks are spin-paired then separated, if the spin of one is changed, the spin of the other changes instantly in sympathy. 'Spooky distance' - Einstein. Force unknown.

37. Check Fermi and tunnelling electrons.

38. If human stereo vision is limited to about 2 deg, what happens for monocular vision? What can be seen? No depth of field (distance). Is there rapid switching left/right or does the brain 'process' separate images?

39. On what basis is the age of the Moon estimated? A few samples of rock brought back by alleged Apollo astronauts/robots? The Moon was never borne out of Earth. It is a captured planet sent by the alien.

40. If I travel due south by plane at 500mph, the Earth will move eastwards by about 1000 miles in the same hour. Since I am not in contact with the ground, but still passing through the air, will I need to compensate for this sideways movement? Probably not: like the different experience of movement inside and outside of a train.

41. The genitalia are designed to simply ensure the male sperm cell reaches the female egg. Orgasm increases the chance of the two cells meeting. The female cell is a single entity while the male is numbered in millions. That describes the absolute importance of conception when only one cell is required. The union, or fertilisation, creates a new single entity from two unique parts, each of which cannot by itself form a living being. The new single cell as a mixture forms a symbiotic dependency and becomes a unique life form.

42. The Sun and (Earth's) Moon both rotate once in 28 Earth rotations (days). The Sun polarisation of equatorial poles are 7 day fluctuations from +ive to -ive, Sinusoidal. The equatorial regions rotate faster (28 days as seen from Earth, 26 days absolute) to vertical poles (40.5/37) days.

43. The Sun: 26 Earth days for rotation (28 as seen from Earth). Earth has moved on 1/12th year after ths time. Moon has revolved once about its axis. Connection between 11.5 years solar cycle (solar 'year' as Sun rotates on spot) and Moon's 28 days: 11.5*365/28 = 149.9. Distance in millions of km of Earth to Sun. Review 26 day solar 'day' and 28 day lunar 'day' and how orbit increases this period. Earth moves on 1/12th circumference of orbit so solar 'day' is 26+(26/12) = ~28 days. There is a catch-up time. Same for Moon. Relative motion takes place. How does Earth (and Moon) and Sun synchronise over one year? Equatorial regions = 37 days (37+37/12 = ~40.5 days).

44. If electrons are stripped away from atoms then the space occupied is much less. The repulsion between atoms is lessened and so greater density is achieved even though the forces between nuclei cause internal repulsion. Pressure can overcome this so causing nuclei to fuse with one another. New elements are formed. Even unstable atoms are 'forced' into stability(radioactive decay is prevented).

45. What is fire? The removal of oxygen causing a breach in a time-space barrier. Heat (low temperatures) results. SHC is intense and very localised heat output. Work on this theme.

46. Review lung volumes. By 1980 global population was 4billion. At 2005 it was well on the way to doubling and was 6.5-7billion. Increasing: greater oil consumption and more CO2. Money is the driver since power is paramount. The human race is doomed and is part of the plan. The silent arrival and killing without ever noticing.

47. 8CO2 + 10H2O -> 2C4H10 + 13O2: catalyst = M+ not of this Earth, but disguised by creating a new complex.

48. 'Dark matter' seems to implicate hydrogen, but emits no light. The question occurs: what is responsible for light? Fusion to He? The speed of light becomes redundant in the absense of light. (Not an original idea.) Adapt the principle of dissolving a solid to produce a clear solution. Solid dissolved in the 'nothing' of space. Separation of solvated components in the medium of space. Dark matter?

49. Unknown 'stable' terrestrial elements can still exist. The mechanism of their formation cannot occur in our solar system. Heat, pressure etc and our understanding of life prevents the formation.

50. Capture the propellant exhaust gas from an engine and re-use the potential power. Convert propulsive energy by overcoming friction.

51. Fusion: overcome proton repulsive +ive charges to form He.

52. How can a battery be recharged in space? Is solar the only way? Apply this logic on Earth.

53. Conditions in our solar system only allow up to Uranium to exist. Elsewhere here is no reason for any limit other than the conditions themselves.

54. Gravity: the close packing of molecules creates greater density and the gravitational effect is increased. Oxygen does not settle because of gravity, but is easily moved about, yet if left undisturbed will 'gravitate' downwards and collect together.

55. A magnetic field repulsion (or attraction) by contrast does not appear to weaken. What, then, is the difference between the two energies?

56. Is gravity somehow related to atmosphere? Go higher, less air, less gravity. Assumption that gravity goes to the centre of a body. Cannot be shown and may only permeate a few miles or so. Liquid mantle disallows investigation. Weak gravity of Moon. Maybe it's not!

57. The further out an object, slower the orbit. Closer in then faster. Moon at an average 238,855 miles (24,000 miles variation between perigee [closest] and apogee [furthest]) takes 27.32 days synchronous 'monthly' rotation. Earth perihelion (closest = 0.98AU)and aphelion (furthest = 1.017AU). What causes this 'balanced', but asymmetric, orbit? The Earth must effectively have an unstable 'wobble', a precession rotation caused by the irregular land mass distribution. Geo-stationary position for satellite (matched orbital speed) is 22,300 miles. Any closer encounters atmosphere and frictional slowing. Otherwise would speed up even more, just like the ice-skater/arm length scenario. Size is 27% that of Earth. For the Moon it would be further out to cause a permanent shadow spot (smaller than current as further in). Is Moon orbit speeding up or slowing down? Getting closer/moving away. I think it is moving away so it is the wrong 'natural' direction. Where would shadow be located if land slippage so fast (7 days to create the Earth all those billions of years ago)? Egypt and/or Mexico? Moon moved in and out to reposition. Could be further out for effective opposite orbit or further in to speed up. Either way, easily repositioned.

58. The harmonic creates a hybrid tone, but is neither of the components. Ratios record the relative change between two components at any moment. This can be constant as in harmonics or different.

59. Is dietary approach possible by minimising intake of foods that are rich in the amino acid that promotes growth. Could be a balance between denying the amino acid to cancerous cell, but not to cells needed for life.

60. Increased mobility has brought its many problems: exposure to more UV from the sun and cellular DNA damage. Foods and 'foreign' diseases.

61. Doesn't need much methane or CO2 to make a significant environmental change: 0.04% CO2 compared to 70% nitrogen and 20% oxygen.

62. Does the Fibonnacci sequence define the spiral pathway down a pyramid and produce a straight line? But why four faces and not 3, 5, 7...? Four essentially distinguishable seasons. The change of one to the next is really very fast. Is the precessional 'elliptical' orbit enough to explain this or is there more to this simplistic notion?

63. How foolproof is a DNA trace? Chromatogram or what is it anyway?

64. How would it be possible to speculate what lies between the west and east coast of the Sahara desert if all that is viewable are the surrounding grains of sand around one grain: 'above', 'below' and in any other direction?

65. The millions of degrees heat towards the Sun's core, creates an environment where a liquid wants to be a gas, but the tremendous pressure prevents vaporisation to a gas. This illustrates a situation that on Earth confounds physical laws. Some radioactive elements on Earth can exist as stable elements in another environment with very different pressures and temperatures.

66. How is relative mass estimated for a distant planet? It cannot be weighed. Must be related to its gravity.

67. See beryllium: sun spot activity indicates cosmic ray increase. The interaction with atmospheric oxygen generates beryllium-10. A weak magnetic field on Earth would cause less deflection of cosmic rays. Combination of a weaker magnetic field and greater cosmic ray activity creates more beryllium-10 and leads to less oxygen.

68. Is there a connection between Moon elevation and weather? Low in sky and full moon (Sun at 180 deg) yields (very) high-tide. Very rainy deluges (low pressure). Moon high in sky - is this high pressure and good weather?

69. The problem in take-off is overcoming inertia. The answer is to make mass weightless. Cancel gravity and remove inertia: instant velocity. Acceleration as a concept is modified. Inital (zero speed) reaches terminal velocity instantaneously. Acceleration is zero. Move from V1 to V2 in zero time. Without cancelling force V2 remains unchanged. How did Earth, planets and everything else acquire initial velocity? Under acceleration forces, why does an object stop accelerating and move at constant velocity if no forces act to negate acceleration?

70. Why is the tide wavelike? Why isn't the motion smooth since the rotations of the Earth and Moon are smooth? Is this an example of 2D to 3D translation of motion? The ground over which water moves is not flat or regular. The smooth flow is interrupted and warmer/colder water mixing causes disturbance. Effect is the erratic (not discernible) pattern observed, but with an overall theme: tide in or out.

71. The part of the brain that interprets pain? Chemicals transmit enablers, but what is and what actually creates 'pain'? Cocaine inhibits dopamine synaptic clearance sustaining the dopamine pleasure effects. A properly functioning synapse requires dopamine. This implies success will be a pleasurable experience.

72. Creation of atoms by altering numbers of protons/neutrons/electrons. An example: bombard nitrogen gas with clusters of protons and neutrons to obtain oxygen.

73. If a limb or any body part is removed and subsquently destroyed there is no recognition of the part at all, only perhaps a ghost limb appreciation. Does this happen with internal organs, but is just not recognised as such? A limb is associated as being long term and its loss is easily noted. A tumour is not missed. This implicates a mental state and recognition.

74. Under enormous pressure (supernova) electrons and protons fuse together to form neutrons. Neutrinos are formed and ejected at the speed of light. Heavy elements like iron (cannot burn) are formed as an endpoint.

75. The rise in the level of CO2 is not the cause of warming, but the effect. As the sea warms, the amount of CO2 released increases. This is the nature of a warm liquid: its capacity to absorb a gas is reduced. Cold liquids retain more gas. The consequence of warming oceans is the rise in atmospheric levels of this greenhouse gas. The sun is getting hotter by burning more helium in its furnace. Simple, and has little to do with burning fossil fuels though this clearly does not help.

76. Why the natural L-isomer of optically active molecules? Are notes 351 and 352 connected?

77. Consider the differences and similarities between volcanoes and 'craters'.

78. The iron/nickel (?) core in the centre of the Earth is the reason for the apparent magnetic pole shift. The effect is because of precession. Liquid mantle does not allow any connected or synchronised movement due to the momentum of this rotating liquid.

79. Rock age by elemental radioactivity decay rate. Only C14 to determine age of organic material. Examine damage track made by such decay. Around 25micrometres (25millionths) long. Based on decay rate, can calculate the length of time necessary to produce that number of tracks for a known amount of radioactive material present.

80. Hypothalamus regulates body temperature. Increased blood flow to skin with sweating. Evaporation causes cooling.

81. Galaxyescape velocity (maybe) 50 times faster than achievable. Whatever, essentially not possible and ensures being trapped in the box unless other forms of relocation are discovered. Note: any advance ill be slowed or stopped while the discovery is turned towards war and control. The 'richest man in the graveyard principle'.

82. What is there in a pacemaker that creates the hazard with a (strong) magnetic field. If non-ferromagnetic materials are used (titanium, aluminium) or stainless steel (iron alloyed with chromium and nickel) or cobalt-chromium alloy. Cobalt, nickel and iron are feromagnetic metals, but are rendered non-magnetic as the alloyed material.

83. Colour is the reflected light.

84. Implications of axial tilt change of precession. If orbit track doesn't alter, the shift of Earth's land masses causes changes in the oceans by displacement of water by land. This is in addition to the 'melting' ice-caps.

85. The subtle and unnoticed shift of as little as 0.5deg would cause more land to be warmed in the daytime (by a hotter Sun) and so take this extra heat around to a modified mnnnposition as night proceeds to be radiated into the air. The air currents warm the colder ice regions enough to cause some melting to cool the warming seas. Impeding air flow is reduced and weight loss continues to alter the axial shift as polar regions become lighter. The 'wobble' subtely changes.

86. Gravity: the Sun is very magnetic with solar flares being swirled back down to return from the object that tried to eject them. Planets contain iron and nickel (paramagnetic?). The return involves turning which in turn causes rotation.

87. Fascinating 'fact': has this been proven or is it just theoretical? Light travels at a finite speed (300,000m/s). But the gravitational effect is instant, whatever the distance. So, what effect is known about the gravitational influence of a planet one light year distant or more or even 400bn km/miles distant. Instant? Who really knows?

88. Tidal waves. Why do waves occur when Earth/Moon rotation is (presumed to be) smooth. Once a volume of water has been set in motion, the direction cannot be altered. The Earth/Moon objects continue in a continuously modified direction relative to the original direction of the water flow. Consequence is appearance of a judder or waves as each new volume of water and its wave begin.

89. Four (?) hydrogen atoms to make helium. Is it bimolecular?

90. Earth passes between positioned-in-space metal coil: electromagnetic Faraday principle produces electricity to electrocute the Earth!

91. The only difference between O2 and CO2 is carbon. Putting aside all other elements that enable a living entity, these two (C, O) are critical to the support of life. Without them nothing else is necessary. Life would not exist. To imagine that random evolution could develop the incredible complexity of life is as ridiculous as believing that enough time and typewriters would culminate in an exact copy of Shakespeare's Hamlet.

92. The absolute zero of -273.16deg is only relative to the Kelvin scale and is essentially arbitrary in its starting point. Temperatures go much lower, but are neither measurable nor attainable. This does not imply that temps lower than this do not occur in the vastness of space. Somewhere.

93. Differences caused by optical isomers. Recognition and effect.

94. Is there any clear and simple correlation between CO2 level increase and population growth.

95. If coal originated from CO2 what caused the reduction? The oxygen caused life to start, but what cataysed the chain into being?

96. Physical shape of a molecule simply places the required electron density at precisely the right place. Simple really.

97. Assymetric compound enzymatically cleaved in the presence of a chiral co-factor that then selectively destroys one of the enantiomers. Or the wrong enantiomeric product fails to undergo the next reaction in the sequence. Wrong internal structure that is necessary to facilitate the reaction. Simple, but critical.

98. The particular orbit rotation orientation of Earth predefines the optical preference of molecules through gravity and angular momentum. Predisposed selectively. The natural enantiomer is the L-form.

99. Reduction of atmosphere by hydrogen to remove molecular oxygen and produce water. O2+H2 -> 2H2O. Oxygen is also trapped as CO2 with carbon. Higher temperature and less oxygen is possibly the ideal for an alien. Inert N2 is simply a diluent. Remove nitrogen and the concentration of all gases increases. More water and more CO2 gets dissolved as the temperature is raised.

Mobile Phones And Microwaves

2010-07-25T05:21:00.000-07:00

Microwave ovens heat food by a process involving molecular friction: water vibrates at a frequency of around 2.45GHz (2,450,000,000 times a second). Clearly, the choice of frequency is such that microwaves excite the water molecules and create (molecular friction) heat. This is heating food using the water contained within it and does not constitute cooking, but only heating. A microwave oven contains a magnetron. The origins of this tube goes back to 1921 and the development of the Cavity Magnetron onward from 1940 by Randall and Boot through WWII. It produces microwave radiation wavelengths of around 2.45GHz, also described as 2450MHz, which interacts with the molecules in food (water, fats and sugars).

Currently, mobile (cell) phones operate at up to 1900MHz so the obvious concern is the similarity of the mobile phone operating frequency and the frequency of the microwaves that heat water being held near to a fatty mass that contains a large amount of cerebrospinal fluid that contains glucose (a sugar). The brain contains a considerable amount (77-78%) of water.

Mobile Phone Use - A Sponsored Study?

Comment Journal, November 2006

Mobile phone radiation and health
Cell phones and health concerns

The implications and consequential potential for brain cancer should not be underestimated.

Statin Withdrawal

2010-07-09T03:06:00.000-07:00

Statins could possibly be used by those unable to exercise at an intensity sufficient to 'burn' fat as a fuel source. The blood flow rate is increased. The heart is a muscle, but health issues may compromise efforts to effect improvements. The arterial fat (cholesterol) may possibly only be reduced by drugs. However, when drugs have lowered any fat build up that may cause blockages to blood flow, exercise should (if possible) then take the place of the drugs (cholesterol sequesters). This is possibly not an option and medical supervision should be followed. Coming off statins, however, is not a simple affair and is possibly a reason that they can be potentially harmful in the longer term.

It is not uncommon for patients treated with steroids to gain (fat) weight. The dilemma is a reasonable level of health vs weight gain.

Statins not only lower cholesterol, but also reduce C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of harmful inflammation in the arteries that can lead to blood clots.

Statin withdrawal leads to a rapid and significant increase in CRP, independent of the parallel LDL increase.

Dozens of studies have shown that CRP, like cholesterol, is an important, independent predictor of heart attack and stroke risk.

Eccentricity, Ellipticity, Obliquity And Climate Change

2010-07-08T12:02:00.000-07:00

Much has been discussed regarding the effects on climate caused by human activities. This may in part be (very loosely) based on fact, but a great deal of 'fact' is conveniently ignored. The emphasis is clearly on a justification for raised taxation. Not the science.

The orbit of any body around another is rarely, if ever, a perfect circle. The theoretical extremes of the eccentricity are a circle and an ellipse and the change from one to another can be caused by several interacting effects. The relative position of a focus (Sun) may possibly not vary a great deal, but the distance of the orbiting object around that focus does change. The extremity of distance of an orbiting body from the focus will increase as circular morphs to elliptical. This will ensure that the orbital distance remains the same and is a prerequisite since the annual orbit is the same. The 'squashed circle'. The more 'squashed' this circle becomes, the closer the body is to the Sun. Hotter.

It should be recognised that the Earth year is currently 365.25 days and many thousands (possibly millions) of years ago may have been less, possibly 360 days. The entire solar system is in motion and the relative (absolute) position in space will change enormously from one 'year' to the next. The appearance is one of stability, but this is the illusion. The effect of global warming and the associated potential for climate change are then (theoretically) very real.

The effect may be the same, though

the interpretation of cause does

change considerably

A more elliptical orbit will have an increased major axis distance from the focus compared to that of a more circular one, but since the circle is 'squashed' even though the distance from the focus increases, the overall orbital distance is not appreciably changed. The velocity between the extremes of the elliptical orbit: the closest to the Sun = perihelion (fastest and hottest) or furthest from the Sun (aphelion) as the (slowest and coldest) will be intermediate to that around the focus (long/short axis). The long axis is the distance from one extreme of the ellipse to the opposite side passing through the centre. The semi-major axis is one-half this value. The ellipticity is the ratio of the semi-major axis distance to that of the focus to the centre. The object could conceivably be oval in shape and other planetary (gravitational) influences will effect change. The relative orbital locations of the planets with respect to each other will continuously change since the 'yearly' revolution for each of the planets is different. Inter-planetary gravitational influence will be constantly different as the relative positions are all in continual variance.

Mercury

88 (Earth) days, 0.38AU

Venus

225 (Earth) days, 0.72AU

Earth

365.25 (Earth) days, 1.00AU

Mars

687 (Earth) days, 1.52AU

Asteroid Belt

Either a failed accretion caused by the opposing Jupiter-Sun gravitational influence or a destroyed planet from collision*

Jupiter

4332.75 (Earth) days (11 years 315 days), 5.2AU

Saturn

10759.25 (Earth) days (29 years 167 days), 9.54AU

Uranus

30687 (Earth) days (84 years 6 days), 19.22AU

Neptune

60189 (Earth) days (164 years 288 days), 30.06AU

* The collision theory is doubtful as the Moon would probably not have survived a collision with Earth. The Moon does exist, so the origin must be through a different mechanism.

The transit of one object around another continually changes. The square of the orbital circumference as measured by the transit time (Earth) days is proportional to the cube of the radial distance (AU), but only for the truly circular orbit. The velocity of a planet decreases with the radial distance: the further away, the slower its orbital speed according to Kepler's third law:

Orbits are not perfect circles and so the constancy is only approximate, but the relationship appears to be valid.

7744 (88 x 88) days/0.38AU x 0.38AU x 0.38AU =

141128

50625 (225 x 225) days/0.72AU x 0.72AU x 0.72AU =

135634

133407.6 (365.25 x 365.25) days/1AU x 1AU x 1AU =

133408

471969 (687 x 687) days/1.52AU x 1.52AU x 1.52AU =

134395

18772722.6 (4332.75 x 4332.75) days/5.2AU x 5.2AU x 5.2AU =

133509

115761460.6 (10759.25 x 10759.25) days/9.54AU x 9.54AU x 9.54AU =

133327

941691969 (30687 x 30687) days/19.22AU x 19.22AU x 19.22AU =

132633

3622715721 (60189 x 60189) days/30.06AU x 30.06AU x 30.06AU =

133373

The obliquity of the Earth is the change in its axial tilt and takes around 41,000 years to move from 21.5deg to 24.5deg and back again and is currently about 23.5deg. The precession of this axial shift defines the 'wobble' of the Earth's motion at any specific tilt angle: 26,000 years. So the Earth precesses around its axis at a specific angle that itself changes over time. The orbit of this rotating object that precesses, changes between a flattened ellipse to a more circular shape over an estimated 100,000 years. What this means is that the Earth orbit from any one year to the next fluctuates, albeit by a very small amount, and the planet's position in space relative to the Sun will never be the same from one year to the next. Even Earth's Moon rotating once on its own axis for every single orbit around the Earth has a gravitational interaction resulting in two Earth tides (each approximately 45 minutes later) every day. One orbit takes about 30 days = a 12 deg positional eastward shift every day and 12/360 x 24hrs = 0.8hrs (48 mins). The heat radiated by the Sun and absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere will constantly increase/decrease over the thousands of years that these related movements occur. The climate of the planet changes because the distance of the Earth from the Sun is always changing. And the Sun is getting warmer.

As an observation, Jupiter's average 'year' is 11.86 Earth years (= 4332.71/365.25 Earth days) and sunspot activity appears to have maxima every 11 or so years, but it is not likely that Jupiter's orbital gravitational influence would affect the Sun's activity: the tiny Jovian speck having such an effect on the comparative enormity of the Sun just doesn't make a lot of sense. However, any gravitational changes of the Sun caused by the sunspots (relatively cooler areas on the Sun's surface or photosphere) could, however, affect the orbital transit of all celestial bodies within its sphere of influence. Sunspots involve magnetism and gravity and magnetism could be related.

The three cycles are operating simultaneously and since the relative periods are so diverse, synchronicity cannot happen (accepting that the time-periods are correct). A complete precession (26,000 years) cycle through 6degs (21.5degs -> 24.5degs -> 21.5degs) occurs roughly 4 times for every eccentricity cycle (100,000 years) where obliquity (41,000 years) happens only two and one-half times. The position in space at any moment and the changing gravitational influences caused by the constant motion of the planets ensures the radiation from the Sun is never constant either. The result:

Climate Change

Comment

Actual denials of climate change are rarely voiced, though the single reason for it being caused by human activity is vehemently challenged. It is clearly politically and financially motivated and crude attempts at ridicule are simply accusations of 'deniers of climate change'. This is the classic response of those who define fair and reasonable challenge as conspiracy theory and such accusers are nauseatingly hypocritical simply by ignoring mainline science and their own arrogance by attempting to shift understanding by prosyletising their beliefs. The patronising "holier-than-thou" attitude defines the stance of such people as no case is ever put that can be properly argued.

It's as ridiculous as it is nauseating

A true scientist knows the cosmological (or cosmogony) arguments. At the very least they should do. Before pontificating about their version of the truth based on untruth or incomplete (known) argument. Cherry-picking is like statistics. Any story can be told with massaging. Truth can never be 'massaged'.

Weight Loss: Physiology And Psychology

2010-07-05T23:23:00.000-07:00

Blood Flow Physics

Circulation

Dehydration

Diabetes And Cardiovascular Disease

Weight Loss And Exercise

The genetic make-up of the individual is unique and no two individuals can ever be alike. Only actual clones can do that where the genome is copied exactly. All 3 billion or so 'letters' (amino acids) in its code sequence from start to finish in exactly the same order. Identical twins are by definition apparently very similar and even if the appearance traits do not reveal differences, an entire 'lifetime' of experience of every moment for that lifetime could never be duplicated. Someone who is 5' 9" tall can never be 6' in height. It's a genetic and physiological impossibility. Body mass potential is genetic, but even though the physical appearance can be affected, the consequence is that the individual's potential can never be altered.

The body can and does store fat and its physical appearance can vary depending on diet, yet the original genetic potential still does not change. When excess fat is 'burnt off', either by diet or diet and exercise the original appearance will be restored. 'Body-built' muscle mass, however acquired, will eventually be lost if the stress that caused it is terminated. It won't be immediate, but the genetic start-point will eventually be reached. Weight reduction is generally regarded as only involving the removal of adipose tissue, but should be replaced by protein.

Removing the engine from a car may reduce
the overall weight of the vehicle,
but it just fails to function

Such reductions do involve other sources of mass: muscle protein. Weight control does not mean weight loss, but body constitution changes. Excess fatty tissue is removed, but by exercise and using carbohydrate to effect removal of fat by 'burning it off' can increase weight. Protein (muscle) is heavier than fat as it has a greater density. If fat is replaced (not interchangeable) by protein then the body size may decrease though the weight should actually increase. Or depending on starting weight the overall weight may not decrease as much as expected. This can appear to cause conflicting information if the weight alone is monitored, but without consideration of the body appearance. The loss of fat weight can be replaced by the gain of protein-based weight. The former is just an energy source and the latter a structural modification.

Hunger and eating habits are by definition psychological. To reduce an undesirable excess in body weight, the brain must be engaged: the intellect must be involved. The physiology and psychology of the individual complement each other and cannot be separated. Focusing on either one will still involve the other. An athlete must work on both the technique of the sport and nutrition. These techniques may be specific to the sport, but nutrition is a common factor regardless of the discipline. Good nutrition does not require an associated sport and can involve simply the health and well-being of the individual. The athlete's well-being depends on nutrition, but the effectiveness of the athlete depends absolutely on good nutrition.

A runner, weightlifter or gymnast must still use quality foodstuffs since they are all human even though they are individuals with their unique genetic make-up. Human physiology works in the same way for all humans. Sports specificity is unique to a sport, but whatever sport is adopted the human remains human. Any future genomic adaptation remains in the realms of science fiction and science fantasy (?).

Weight Loss And Exercise

2010-07-03T06:42:00.000-07:00

Blood Flow Physics

Circulation

Dehydration

Diabetes And Cardiovascular Disease

Weight Loss: Physiology And Psychology

Arguments regarding exercise and weight control are sometimes quite confused and often confusing. A great deal of this confusion surrounding diets is created by disinformation. It is commonly promoted to peddle a diet. Diet is often misunderstood by being interpreted as short-term only. In the more realistic longer-term, it represents an overall eating regime as a systematic (life-long) plan: a way of life. In moderation, no food type need be excluded, but simply consumed occasionally. There is then no denial of something that may still be desired. Damage can occur when poor food quality becomes incorporated as the staple diet.

Carbohydrate intake should be restricted more than a small excess of fat unless the exercise level demands higher levels. High intensity, especially if for long periods, requires sugars to enable it. Unused sugar (carbohydrate) converts to fat in the body for storage and sugar storage capacity (as glycogen) is limited in the liver and muscle. Adequate blood flow can mobilise carbohydrate from an underused muscle (activity dependent). When used up, carbohydrate stores must be replenished or further work will be severely curtailed. A lower intensity aerobic rate then allows fat to be used as the energy source.

Low (aerobic) intensity for long periods enables fat combustion
A high intensity (anaerobic) level burns carbohydrate and not fat

The distinction between a sprint and a 'jog'. A sprint is very short and a jog can be very lengthy. A slow walk for several miles will consume fat almost exclusively. The rate of fat loss is also slow. Fat is a very efficient storage medium for large amounts of work. A lot more low intensity (sustained) work can be performed.

One extreme is the failure to eat: food denial and potentially anorexia. Such a starvation approach will eventually result in a general weight loss, but is also highly dangerous. Depending on the food type consumed, the mix of protein, carbohydrate and fat will vary. Protein repairs tissue and builds muscle that has undergone the stress necessary for hypertrophy (growth). The myth that low impact muscle building will lead to large and ugly muscles (especially for the woman who simply wishes to reduce body weight) is just that: a myth. But, without stressing muscle at all, it will not adapt to deal with any future demands. The more stress and subsequent growth, the more capable and efficient it will become. Women desire to lose weight usually for appearance. A well-toned physique (not necessarily muscular) can be extremely attractive (to males!).

Effective weight loss is more likely to happen if sugar (carbohydrate) is excluded from the diet rather than fat. Individuals who exclude as many sources of fat as is practicably possible and undergo insufficient exercise, will probably still put on fat weight. The diet almost certainly contains sugary food groups. In the absence of correct aerobic exercise, where the intensity reaches a minimum of around 60%, the body will convert the sugar to fat for storage in adipose tissue cells (adipocyte). The result is weight gain of fatty tissue without consuming fat. The diet must be ruthlessly investigated to remove all sources of excess sugar rather than focusing on fatty foods. The possibility of obesity and diabetes type-2 must be considered as a gain in (fat) weight from a sugary diet indicates a large excess of sugar.

Carbohydrate is required to undergo the energetic activities that raise the intensity level to burn off fat. The human body lacks an enzyme to reverse the process by converting fat into carbohydrate. There is a limited capacity in muscle and the liver to store carbohydrate (as glycogen) and any excess carbohydrate is converted into fat. If a certain level of intensity is not reached, fat stores will not be appreciably reduced. Carbohydrate (sugar) must be consumed to provide the energy capability required to burn fat. Body fat will not be touched unless a minimum start-point of activity intensity is attained. Exercise regimes must be gradually 'ramped-up' to achieve this starting point. Maintenance of this level for at least 30 minutes daily will consume some fat, but a continued quality diet is essential to achieve permanent weight control. It's important to appreciate that fat is just the method of storing a potential energy source. Fat is a requirement for some biological and very important body processes. Many vitamins are fat soluble and without it the chemistry cannot operate.

Fat can be used by the body for energy, but energy is a requirement to produce it. This will originate from the utilisation of carbohydrate.The exercise regime and a good nutrient (diet) intake should satisfy any realistic goals. Carbohydrate is an essential for weight control and failure to consume carbohydrate will not enable a sufficient exercise intensity to burn fat. Foods with a high glycemic index will produce rushes of blood sugar and if used in conjunction with exercise can be useful. Caution, however, must be exercised especially if diabetic. Failure to eat properly will not achieve healthy weight control. Eat yourself thin is absolutely true, but if this is not done properly then weight loss may be the result: ill-health will surely follow.

Be aware that food intake adjustments are much more likely to return benefits than simply increasing the exercise level. Ideally the combination of diet and exercise regime should be considered. The efficiency of fat as a (body) storage medium makes it more difficult to remove just by exercise alone. Food intake reduction should precede an exercise regime that should be 'ramped up' gently. Potentially, serious self-harm could result if general fitness levels are low. The body consumes energy (basal metabolic rate) 24 hours of every day to remain functionally active. Reducing the intake of new food will make considerable and relatively rapid changes. Exercise then supplements weight loss plans and does not by itself produce weight loss.

Essential Oils

2010-06-12T08:44:00.000-07:00

Essential Oil

Characteristic

Warning

Bergamot

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Black Pepper

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Cedarwood

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Chamomile

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Citronella

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Clary Sage

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Eucalyptus

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Fennel

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Frankincense

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Geranium

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Jasmine

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Juniper

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Lavender

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Lemon

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

LemonGrass

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Marjoram

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Neroli

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Orange

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Patchouli

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Peppermint

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Pine

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Rose

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Rosemary

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Rosewood

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Tea Tree

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Ylang Ylang

Refreshing HeadClearing Toning Uplifting Relaxing Soothing Comforting
Do not use before exposure to sun/sunbed
May cause irritation to sensitive skin

Information based on insert from
Holland & Barrett aromatherapy products

Momentum And Kinetic Energy

2010-06-11T03:55:00.000-07:00

The momentum (p) of an object is given by:

p = mv

where m is the mass of the object and v is its (constant) velocity. An object moving at a non-constant speed will either be accelerating or decelerating in which case the kinetic energy must be considered:

KE = ½mv²

A small object travelling at high speed has a greater energy than a larger, slower-moving, object. Consider a 1kg mass moving at 2m/s and one with half the mass (500g), but twice the velocity (4m/s). The KE of the slower-moving heavier object is 2kg/m² (0.5 x 4) and the faster, but lighter object has KE = 4kg/m² (0.25 x 16). So, fast and light has a greater potential for damage than slow and heavy. The momentum will increase with an increase in the mass of the object. It's why a moderately fast-moving train can suffer a mixture of damage: impacting on trees will cause the tree to break with some impact damage, yet an immovable rock will cause total devastation. The rock will remain undamaged. If the impact area consists of trees and rocks, different rates of momentum loss will occur. The train will slow and the overall momentum will be reduced. Eventually, impacting on objects and friction forces (the train has been derailed) will result in the velocity becoming zero: completely stopped. The passengers will suffer both serious and fatal consequences as they themselves only reduce their velocity (initially the speed of the train) by impacting on objects within the train: other passengers, walls, windows, doors.

The momentum (kg/m/s) of a 50 tonnes Chieftain battle tank travelling off-road at 30km/h will easily pass through a brick house wall when a 2 ton car will not. Yet the lighter and potentially faster car could acquire the KE to destroy the wall and the car may survive relatively undamaged. The physics of speed and momentum appear complex if only the result is considered, but outcomes are predictable. The resistance of the brick wall could be more than sufficient to overcome the intrinsic momentum of the car, but not the tank. If the heavy tank impacted on a relatively immovable object, like a large rock wall (mountainside), the front of the tank will come to an abrupt stop, but the rest of the tank will continue moving crushing what is ahead of it: the front part of the same tank. An aircraft that weighs considerably more, crashing into the ground at 600km/h, will be totally crushed, though unless hitting a mountain, a small impact crater or dent would be visible.

Movement in water involves hydrostatics and some curious observations can be noted, but it is not thixotropic (yielding to forces created by pressure). A very slow-moving paddle does not have much of an effect when moving in water. Too fast and a similar outcome will be observed: the paddle will pass through water with little effect. There is an optimum speed that will produce the best result.

Cassini Equinox Mission

2010-05-30T08:19:00.000-07:00

Virtual Tour
Saturn Moons
Jet Propulsion Laboratory

CASSIE 3D

(To exit tour-screen use the x close box)

Mephedrone

2010-04-05T10:08:00.000-07:00

The latest legal high drug is mephedrone and has never been tested on humans since it was never intended for human use. It is a structural analogue of (S)-cathinone and the term miaow miaow presumably comes from either khat or (S)-cat... . Possibly, there will be someone who would experiment with the herbicide (weedkiller) paraquat if they were told 'it has an effect', albeit a very deadly one, but there's only one way to find out...

Perhaps using an emetic in the khat
formulation could prove useful

Ingestion of any unknown substance is always dangerous. And to just get a 'high' whether legal of otherwise is simply stupid. It would appear that improper use is just through simple ignorance. The lack of any knowledge about the dangers of such practices. The worrying element with this entire issue is the attitude that permits taking such potentially deadly products. In the proper environment strychnine or potassium cyanide can be useful. For humans they are both deadly.

Reported central nervous system (CNS) activities include euphoria, enhanced confidence and an urge to socialise. These attributes compare with ecstasy (MDMA) which is structurally related to the class A drug methamphetamine, one of the most potent amphetamines (speed). Originally classified under the Misuse of Drugs Act, 1971 as a class B drug (cannabis, amphetamine, codeine and methylphenidate) this was upgraded in 2006 to Class A which includes heroin, cocaine, ecstasy, methamphetamine, LSD and psilocybin mushrooms.

In the UK, drugs are individually specified (ACMD), an independent expert body (quango), rather than by structural similarity as in the US (Federal Analog Act).

United States Code

Use of substances like mephedrone are already banned simply by the nature of structure. The ACMD itself is currently in disarray.

Smoking

2010-04-05T08:11:00.000-07:00

Nicotine residues absorbed on indoor surfaces react with gases in the air and produce a larger number of carcinogenic compounds. Tobacco causes the deaths of 10% of the adult population in the UQ (aka UK) Ltd (5.4million) annually and if the trend continues probably 8million by 2030. The desorption of these carcinogenic tobacco specific nitrosamines (TSNA) from surfaces creates so-called third-hand smoke and is not a new phenomenon. What has recently been discovered, however, is that these residues react with atmospheric species like nitrous acid, providing another source of TSNAs. Children touch and lick surfaces and fabrics and so are exposed to these compounds in a different way to adults and could be up to 20 times the adult exposure level.

Advertising and sponsorship on TV has been banned since 1991 and in 2005 this was extended to other media, the work-place and public places. It is not likely that a ban can include the home or car as this could not realistically be policed and progress will only be made via education and raising awareness. Ideally, to avoid the need to quit smoking it is best to never start and this must be by education and raising awareness to the serious issues regarding smoking. It involves the selfishness of ignoring the health of others.

Skydiving without a parachute is a deadly activity. And likewise, so is smoking.

Economical Driving - The Physics

2010-03-31T01:25:00.001-07:00

Car Fuel Efficiency
Cars - The Real Purchase Price
Economical Driving
Fast Driving And Increased Fuel Cost
Fuel Consumption Ratings
Head Injury
Improvement
Internal Combustion Engine

A heavy large boulder requires a great deal more energy to initiate movement than a lighter stone. This demonstrates the property of inertia. Inertia relates to a rotation motion, but as a body moves horizontally while being pulled down by gravity the vectors combine. The result is similar in principle to the orbit of a satellite around a planet. So it is with a vehicle. The forward motion and gravitational downward motion that is dependent on the weight (mass) of the vehicle. A small lightweight car will require less energy to start movement than a heavy one and anyone who has ever pushed a car will appreciate this. The kerb weight defines the gross standing weight of a vehicle without passengers or cargo, and can be anything between 1 and 2.5 tonnes. The M1 Abrams battle tank weighs in excess of 60 tonnes. Once a vehicle is moving it acquires momentum and is essentially a measure of resistance to stopping. Energy is consumed to initiate this movement and requires the same energy to stop the motion. This is generally braking, but will also incorporate drag and is the result of gravity pulling down on the vehicle and the resulting friction of the tyres with the road. This resistance to movement is ever-present so a heavy vehicle requires a greater amount of energy just to maintain movement. The drag forces also include wind resistance once in motion. The faster the forward motion, the greater the resistance to this motion: friction of the tyres on the road and resistance caused by static air. On a windy day, the energy requirement changes and depends on whether a head-wind, following-wind or cross-wind applies.

Kinetic energy relates the mass and speed of an object and this relationship is not linear, but a square function. If the speed is doubled, the KE is quadrupled. Three times the velocity and the KE is increased by 9 times. To provide this force, liquid (or gaseous) fuel is consumed and converted into a different form with the production of energy. Not an efficient process. On a windless day, a 2.5 tonne vehicle propelled from 0-60kmph in 5 seconds will use an enormous quantity of fuel when compared to a 1 tonne vehicle accelerated from standing to 60kmph in 10 seconds and will consequently require much less 'fuel'. The problem here is what speed is the base x1 so allowing the estimate of x2 or x3? The vehicle mpg figure that has a defined speed does not allow the mpg at half that speed to be estimated. A heavy (2.5 tonne) and large engine (+3L) moving at 60kmph in top gear may be just "ticking over". A smaller engine (1.2-1.4L) will generate much higher rpm and will consume more fuel even though the vehicle may only be 1 tonne. The fuel consumption figures to achieve this speed (60kmph) is not available and it may be easy, intermediate or hard acceleration.

The figure is meaningless when such a variety of engine

sizes and undefined driving conditions apply

The 60 tonnes M1 Abrams battle tank accelerated to 30kmph uses a tremendous quantity of fuel. These tanks do not use a clutch (the intense friction would cause it to burn out) and the connection between the engine and gears is simply on or off.

Hard acceleration and high revs will result in a very high rate of consumption. A more gentle velocity rate increase (acceleration) will produce much improved economy. At constant velocity, a 5km journey at 30kmph will take 10 minutes (approximately, since the relatively short time for 0-30, 60, 90kmph is ignored), at 60kmph takes 5 minutes and travelling at 90kmph will take 3.33 minutes. Clearly, the greater the speed, the shorter the journey time. The fuel consumption will increase from x1 to x4 to x9, respectively (30 -> 60 -> 90). A journey may be x3 quicker, but the cost in fuel increases (at least) by a factor of x9. However, the base speed will clearly make a major difference: 30kmph -> 60kmph is x2 and -> 90kmph is x3 if 30kmph is the base speed. If 60kmph is the base speed then 90kmph is x1.5 this value and not x3. As an instance the Bentley W12 (Continental Flying Spur) has a published fuel economy of 17mpg at 60mph (96kmph) and so this can be converted to 34mpg at 30mph or around 7-8mpg at 90mph (60mph -> 90mph = x1.5 velocity, but x2.25 KE = 1.5 x 1.5 square function). The picture can be massaged to provide a 'best' answer. This single example illustrates the essentially meaningless nature of such figures when comparing very different vehicles.

Simplistically, if a car capable of 50mph required 50bhp, a similar (size/weight) would need at least 100bhp (x2) to reach 100mph (x2). But to move at 200mph (x4) power in excess of 800bhp (x16) would be necessary. An additional 50mph to a top speed of 250mph would require 1250bhp (50x16). A small increase of 10mph (+5.16%) to 260mph would need 1350bhp (+8% = 50x27). This may seem to be a modest increment of just 100bhp (+8%), but is all that is necessary to power the vehicle to initially 100mph. The engine that powers the vehicle to the highest speed adds significantly to the kerb weight. Power is a requirement not just to increase the overall velocity of the car, but also propel the increase in weight to this speed.

In other words, to increase the speed from 100mph to 260mph (x2.6) requires a power (and concomitant fuel) increase of 100bhp to 1350bhp (x13.5).

50mph -> 100mph (x2)

Power: 50 x 4 = 200bhp
100% increase in speed, 400% increase in power

50mph -> 200mph (x4)

Power: 50 x 16 = 800bhp
400% increase in speed, 1600% increase in power

50mph -> 250mph (x5)

Power: 50 x 25 = 1250bhp
500% increase in speed, 2500% increase in power

50mph -> 260mph (x5.2)

Power: 50 x 27 = 1350bhp
520% increase in speed, 2700% increase in power

So, to increase the top speed by x5.2 from 50mph to 260mph requires a x27 power output of 50bhp to 1350bhp. The increase in engine size and weight conspire to create a huge increase in fuel cost. Crudely, up to x27 the volume (litres) of fuel. Reaching a high speed requires energy, but maintaining any velocity needs fuel and power to overcome the resistance caused by movement through the air (the value of the square of the speed) and the downward influence of gravity: the heavier the vehicle, the greater the downward force and the consequential increase in friction between the tyres and road surface.

The acquired momentum will require efficient braking to slow and stop the moving vehicle. The faster the moving vehicle, the heavier the braking required as the momentum (mv) is that much greater. The major consequence of a heavier vehicle arises from the combination of drag forces: wind resistance and tyre-friction on the road, which are in opposition to maintaining the achieved velocity after acceleration becomes zero (constant velocity). Wind resistance increases dramatically (square function) as speed increases as does the friction: tyres get hot at speed (the faster, the hotter). These forces will slow the vehicle to an eventual standstill unless energy (fuel consumption) is applied and all this assumes a flat road: ie no upward and no downward inclination (hills). As a vehicle moves downward, the potential energy changes into kinetic energy and does work. Momentum = mv and the greater the weight (mass) of the vehicle, the greater the momentum for a given speed. Movement uphill will require an energy input (acceleration) to maintain a constant velocity as gravity pulls the vehicle down onto the ground increasing tyre friction and raising the potential energy while decreasing the kinetic energy. The drag in opposition causes a decrease in the velocity (deceleration) An acceleration will be required to maintain constant velocity. Fuel load goes UP considerably.

As an economy comparison for the 5km journey, the only obvious difference in the energy requirement between the 30kmph, 60kmph or 90kmph journey is the acceleration time: slightly longer to achieve a higher speed. The fuel consumption when the steady speed has been reached will appear to be the same for two comparative vehicles (1 tonne and 2.5 tonnes). It isn't. To maintain progress, energy must be consumed and the heavier the vehicle, more energy is necessary.

If the speed is raised from 30 kmph to 60kmph (+100%), for a 1 tonne vehicle the KE increases from 1*30*30 (900 joules) to 1*60*60 (3600 joules). A fourfold increase. Increasing the acquired velocity to 90kmph (+50%) the energy requirement changes considerably: 1* 90* 90 joules (8100 joules) and is a 9 times increase when compared to the slower speed. Speed increases by 3 times and fuel load goes up by 9 times. Energy increase is 900 to 3600 to 8100 joules. The change is actually in the ratio 1:4:9 or a square function of the velocity for a given mass. If the car is heavier (2.5 tonne) then the energy requirement is substantially greater: the KE increases from 2.5 * 30 * 30 (2250 joules) to 2.5 * 60 * 60 (9000 joules) to 2.5* 90*90 (20250 joules). Again an increase of 1:4:9 when compared to the slowest speed or just x2.25 the energy requirement compared to the next lowest speed (90kmph = 20250 joules -> 60kmph = 9000 joules). However, for true comparison between the 1 tonne and 2.5 tonnes vehicle the energy increase is potentially) rather different than it 'appears':

1 tonne: 900, 3600, 8100 joules
2.5 tonnes: 2250, 9000, 20250 joules

Although the increment is still 1:4:9 for each weight, the difference between the two cars of different weights and low/high speed is actually 900 joules and 20250 joules. This shows that a heavier (x2.5) vehicle driven at x3 speed (90 kmph) of the lighter vehicle (30kmph) requires 22.5 times the energy from fuel: 2.5 tonnes at 90kmph requires x22.5 the fuel load of 1 tonne at 30kmph. Another way of stating this is that at constant speed over a fixed distance the fuel demand for a 2.5 tonne vehicle is potentially 22.5 times greater than the 1 tonne vehicle depending on the driving speed and conditions. This may be basic physics, but the scenario itself is complex and very easily massaged.

Renault Clio (Dynamique: 1.2 16V 3dr hatchback)

1090kg (kerb weight), 47mpg, 73bhp, 50L
Theoretical distance/tank = 47 * 50/4.54 = 518 miles
Top speed = 102mph , 0-60mph [59% potential] = 12.6 seconds
Car tax: 139 g/km CO2

Ford Focus (Studio: 1.4 16V 3dr hatchback)

1150kg (kerb weight), 42mpg, 73bhp, 55L
Theoretical distance/tank = 42 * 55/4.54 = 509 miles
Top speed = 102mph, 0-60mph [59% potential] = 13.6 seconds
Car tax: 158 g/km CO2

Peugeot 207 (1.4 16V S 3dr hatchback)

1139kg (kerb weight), 44mpg, 90bhp, 50L
Theoretical distance/tank = 44 * 50/4.54 = 485 miles
Top speed = 112mph, 0-60mph [54% potential] = 13.7 seconds
Car tax: 152 g/km CO2

BMW X6M (4.4 xDrive X6M 5d Auto)

2305kg (kerb weight), 20mpg, 547bhp, 85L
Theoretical distance/tank = 20 * 85/4.54 = 375 miles
Top speed = 155mph, 0-60mph [39% potential] = 4.5 seconds
Car tax: 325 g/km CO2

Hummer H2 (6.2 V8 Adventure 5d Auto)

2850kg (kerb weight), 16mpg, 392bhp, 121L
Theoretical distance/tank = 16 * 121/4.54 = 426 miles
Top speed = unknown, 0-60mph = 7.6 seconds
Car tax: 412 g/km CO2

Bentley W12 (Continental Flying Spur)

2475kg (kerb weight), 17mpg, 601bhp, 90L
Theoretical distance/tank = 17 * 90/4.54 = 337 miles
Top speed = 200mph, 0-60mph [30% potential]= 4.5 seconds
Car tax: 396 g/km CO2

The Renault Clio, Ford Focus and Peugeot 207 have very similar statistics. The BMW X6M, Hummer H2 and Bentley W12 are included for comparison of high performance and very poor economy and demonstrates that there has never been any attempt to reduce petrol consumption or consider speed restrictions in the UQ (aka UK) Ltd. The objective has always been to maximise revenue and this is very clearly demonstrated reviewing the car tax levied (March 2010).

Considering these figures alone it appears that the Peugeot 207 (1.4) requires a 23% bhp increase (90bhp) to produce a similar performance to the Renault Clio (1.2, 73bhp) or Ford Focus (1.4, 73bhp). The Renault has the smallest engine (1.2) and is possibly a reason for it being the lightest of the three, but this is traded off against the potentially lower revving engine of the Peugeot 207 (1.4) at a comparative speed: 59% against 54%.

The BMW X6M is more than twice the kerb weight of the Ford Focus or Renault Clio and for its performance statistics requires an engine that produces x7.5 the power output (547 v 73bhp). The fuel consumption figures support this: 42 - 47mpg v 20mpg. This comparison is at 60mph, but the potential (155mph) shows that this 20mpg will drop considerably (the rpm is not known).

The Hummer H2 is a tank, but even so has greater potential than the Bentley W12, which has truly absurd fuel economy regardless of its potential performance. At nearly its top (published) speed (potential = 200mph) at 180mph, the fuel economy (theoretically) plummets to 1/36th the 30mph figure (speed x6, KE = x36). Even at 60mph it is only 17mpg.

This is probably the non-disclosed reason why such performance cars

are allowed to be built since they can never in reality be driven at

such speeds without requiring frequent refuelling

Performance statistics for diesel engines appears to compare well with petrol powered cars, claiming 42mpg for combined driving, but at an unspecified speed and declared rpm (revs are assumed to be per minute). The 2993cc (3L) V6 24v turbodiesel engine delivers 271bhp @ 4000rpm, 443lb ft @ 2000rpm. The standing-start acceleration to 62mph = 5.9 seconds and a top speed (electronically governed) of 155mph. This car has a kerb weight of 1820kg and emissions at 179g/km CO2. At 4000rpm what is the speed? The potential may be 155mph, though what rpm are produced at this 'top speed'? Electronically governed implies there is more theoretically available and so the rpm by themselves do not impart any significant information. Note: mixing imperial and metric units.

Describing a car this way makes it sound like a strong performance, yet not declaring details of fuel consumption except 42mpg for combined driving, which is absolutely meaningless when presented as a single statistic.

Another highly relevant factor is the operating temperature of the engine. Short journeys barely reach the optimal temperature with longer journeys being the most economical based only on engine temperature. The best combination is uninterrupted motion at moderate speed.

Why is the acceleration statistic (0-60mph) of a car so important? It is the most fuel uneconomic and simply means that the next red trafffic light is more quickly reached. And a longer wait until the following green light - DA

Orbit Distance With Time Relationship

2010-02-22T10:53:00.000-08:00

The orbital distance (r) of any planet from the Sun has a definite relationship with the time it takes to circumnavigate the star. Considering the time (comparatively in P days) taken for a planet's 'year' and the distance from the central star either in millions of kilometres (mkm) or AU (Astronomical Units), a constancy is apparent.

Orbital Period (P days)

Mercury

P = 88, P²= 7744

Venus

P = 224.7, P² = 50490

Earth

P = 365.25, P² = 133408

Mars

P = 686.9, P² = 471832

Asteroid Belt

Jupiter

P = 4331.87, P² = 18765098

Saturn

P = 10760.27, P² = 115783411

Uranus

P = 30684.65, P² = 941547746

Neptune

P = 60189.55, P² = 3622781929

The Asteroid Belt is spread over a wide distance

Planetary distance (r) from the Sun (mkm, AU)

The respective planetary values below are for r, r³, AU, AU³

Mercury

57.9, 194105, 0.387, 0.058

Venus

108.2, 1266723, 0.723, 0.378

Earth

149.6, 3348072, 1.000, 1.000

Mars

227.9, 11836764, 1.523, 3.533

Asteroid Belt

Jupiter

778.3, 471455918, 5.203, 140.852

Saturn

1427, 2905841483, 9.539, 867.978

Uranus

2871, 23664622310, 19.190, 7066.835

Neptune

4497, 90942871470, 30.060, 27162.324

According to Kepler's third law

The respective planetary values below are for P²/r³, P²/AU³

Mercury

0.0399, 133517

Venus

0.0399, 133571

Earth

0.0398, 133408

Mars

0.0399, 133550

Asteroid Belt

Jupiter

0.0398, 133226

Saturn

0.0398, 133394

Uranus

0.0398, 133235

Neptune

0.0398, 133375

Average

0.0398, 133410

In both cases the constancy is clearly demonstrated and shows a relationship between a 2D quantity (function²) and a 3D quantity (function³).

A planet's 'year' will be completed after P days and it will travel through 360°. Relative to Mercury as the innermost planet and consequently the fastest moving, each of the other seven planets will move through less than this full circle. In the time taken for one complete orbit of Mercury (360°), the planet Venus will have moved only 88/224.7 * 360 = 140.99° and Earth by 88/365.25 * 360 = 86.735° and so on.

Note: the ellipticity of a planet's orbit is ignored
for the sake of this empirical argument

Orbital Period (P days), Orbital (Circular) Angle (θ°)

Mercury

P = 88, θ= 360.00°

Venus

P = 224.7, θ = 140.99°

Earth

P = 365.25, θ = 86.735°

Mars

P = 686.9, θ = 46.12°

Asteroid Belt

Jupiter

P = 4331.87, θ = 7.313°

Saturn

P = 10760.27, θ = 2.944°

Uranus

P = 30684.65, θ = 1.032°

Neptune

P = 60189.55, θ = 0.526°

The following values are derived from P and θ:

θ² = 129600.00, AU³ = 0.058, θ² * AU³ = 7516.80

θ² = 19878.18, AU³ = 0.378, θ² * AU³ = 7513.95

θ² = 7522.96, AU³ = 1.000, θ² * AU³ = 7522.90

θ² = 2127.05, AU³ = 3.533, θ² * AU³ = 7514.87

θ² = 53.48, AU³ = 140.852, θ² * AU³ = 7532.76

θ² = 8.667, AU³ = 867.978, θ² * AU³ = 7522.77

θ² = 1.0658, AU³ = 7066.835, θ² * AU³ = 7531.83

θ² = 0.2767, AU³ = 27162.324, θ² * AU³ = 7515.82

In all cases the constancy is clearly demonstrated and again shows a relationship between a 2D quantity (function²) and a 3D quantity (function³).